<s>
In	O
artificial	B-Application
intelligence	I-Application
research	I-Application
,	O
the	O
situated	B-General_Concept
approach	O
builds	O
agents	B-General_Concept
that	O
are	O
designed	O
to	O
behave	O
effectively	O
successfully	O
in	O
their	O
environment	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
This	O
requires	O
designing	O
AI	B-Application
"	O
from	O
the	O
bottom-up	O
"	O
by	O
focussing	O
on	O
the	O
basic	O
perceptual	O
and	O
motor	O
skills	O
required	O
to	O
survive	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
The	O
situated	B-General_Concept
approach	O
gives	O
a	O
much	O
lower	O
priority	O
to	O
abstract	O
reasoning	O
or	O
problem-solving	O
skills	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
After	O
several	O
decades	O
,	O
classical	O
AI	B-Application
technologies	O
started	O
to	O
face	O
intractable	O
issues	O
(	O
e.g.	O
</s>
<s>
All	O
approaches	O
to	O
address	O
these	O
issues	O
focus	O
on	O
modeling	O
intelligences	O
situated	B-General_Concept
in	O
an	O
environment	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
They	O
have	O
become	O
known	O
as	O
the	O
situated	B-General_Concept
approach	O
to	O
AI	B-Application
.	O
</s>
<s>
During	O
the	O
late	O
1980s	O
,	O
the	O
approach	O
now	O
known	O
as	O
Nouvelle	O
AI	B-Application
(	O
Nouvelle	O
means	O
new	O
in	O
French	O
)	O
was	O
pioneered	O
at	O
the	O
MIT	O
Artificial	B-Application
Intelligence	I-Application
Laboratory	O
by	O
Rodney	O
Brooks	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
As	O
opposed	O
to	O
classical	O
or	O
traditional	O
artificial	B-Application
intelligence	I-Application
,	O
Nouvelle	O
AI	B-Application
purposely	O
avoided	O
the	O
traditional	O
goal	O
of	O
modeling	O
human-level	O
performance	O
,	O
but	O
rather	O
tries	O
to	O
create	O
systems	O
with	O
intelligence	O
at	O
the	O
level	O
of	O
insects	O
,	O
closer	O
to	O
real-world	O
robots	B-Algorithm
.	O
</s>
<s>
But	O
eventually	O
,	O
at	O
least	O
at	O
MIT	O
new	O
AI	B-Application
did	O
lead	O
to	O
an	O
attempt	O
for	O
humanoid	O
AI	B-Application
in	O
the	O
Cog	O
Project	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
The	O
conceptual	O
shift	O
introduced	O
by	O
nouvelle	O
AI	B-Application
flourished	O
in	O
the	O
robotics	O
area	O
,	O
given	O
way	O
to	O
behavior-based	O
artificial	B-Application
intelligence	I-Application
(	O
BBAI	O
)	O
,	O
a	O
methodology	O
for	O
developing	O
AI	B-Application
based	O
on	O
a	O
modular	O
decomposition	O
of	O
intelligence	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
It	O
was	O
made	O
famous	O
by	O
Rodney	O
Brooks	O
:	O
his	O
subsumption	B-Architecture
architecture	I-Architecture
was	O
one	O
of	O
the	O
earliest	O
attempts	O
to	O
describe	O
a	O
mechanism	O
for	O
developing	O
BBAI	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
It	O
is	O
extremely	O
popular	O
in	O
robotics	O
and	O
to	O
a	O
lesser	O
extent	O
to	O
implement	O
intelligent	B-General_Concept
virtual	I-General_Concept
agents	I-General_Concept
because	O
it	O
allows	O
the	O
successful	O
creation	O
of	O
real-time	O
dynamic	O
systems	O
that	O
can	O
run	O
in	O
complex	O
environments	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
For	O
example	O
,	O
it	O
underlies	O
the	O
intelligence	O
of	O
the	O
Sony	O
,	O
Aibo	O
and	O
many	O
RoboCup	O
robot	B-Algorithm
teams	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Realizing	O
that	O
in	O
fact	O
all	O
these	O
approaches	O
were	O
aiming	O
at	O
building	O
not	O
an	O
abstract	O
intelligence	O
,	O
but	O
rather	O
an	O
intelligence	O
situated	B-General_Concept
in	O
a	O
given	O
environment	O
,	O
they	O
have	O
come	O
to	O
be	O
known	O
as	O
the	O
situated	B-General_Concept
approach	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
This	O
process	O
is	O
called	O
the	O
AI	B-Application
loop	O
and	O
technology	O
used	O
to	O
simulate	O
it	O
can	O
be	O
subdivided	O
in	O
two	O
categories	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Sensorimotor	O
or	O
low-level	O
AI	B-Application
deals	O
with	O
either	O
the	O
perception	O
problem	O
(	O
what	O
is	O
perceived	O
?	O
)	O
</s>
<s>
Decisional	O
or	O
high-level	O
AI	B-Application
deals	O
with	O
the	O
action	O
selection	O
problem	O
(	O
what	O
is	O
the	O
most	O
appropriate	O
action	O
in	O
response	O
to	O
a	O
given	O
perception	O
,	O
i.e.	O
</s>
<s>
There	O
are	O
two	O
main	O
approaches	O
in	O
decisional	O
AI	B-Application
.	O
</s>
<s>
The	O
vast	O
majority	O
of	O
the	O
technologies	O
available	O
on	O
the	O
market	O
,	O
such	O
as	O
planning	B-Application
algorithms	I-Application
,	O
finite	B-Architecture
state	I-Architecture
machines	I-Architecture
(	O
FSA	O
)	O
,	O
or	O
expert	B-Application
systems	I-Application
,	O
are	O
based	O
on	O
the	O
traditional	O
or	O
symbolic	B-General_Concept
AI	I-General_Concept
approach	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
It	O
is	O
knowledge-based	O
:	O
it	O
relies	O
on	O
a	O
symbolic	B-General_Concept
description	O
of	O
the	O
world	O
,	O
such	O
as	O
a	O
set	O
of	O
rules	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
However	O
,	O
the	O
limits	O
of	O
traditional	O
AI	B-Application
,	O
which	O
goal	O
is	O
to	O
build	O
systems	O
that	O
mimic	O
human	O
intelligence	O
,	O
are	O
well-known	O
:	O
inevitably	O
,	O
a	O
combinatorial	O
explosion	O
of	O
the	O
number	O
of	O
rules	O
occurs	O
due	O
to	O
the	O
complexity	O
of	O
the	O
environment	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
In	O
order	O
to	O
address	O
these	O
issues	O
,	O
another	O
approach	O
to	O
decisional	O
AI	B-Application
,	O
also	O
known	O
as	O
situated	B-General_Concept
or	O
behavioral	O
AI	B-Application
,	O
has	O
been	O
proposed	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
It	O
is	O
behavior-based	O
:	O
it	O
does	O
not	O
rely	O
on	O
a	O
symbolic	B-General_Concept
description	O
of	O
the	O
environment	O
,	O
but	O
rather	O
on	O
a	O
model	O
of	O
the	O
interactions	O
of	O
the	O
entities	O
with	O
their	O
environment	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
The	O
goal	O
of	O
situated	B-General_Concept
AI	I-General_Concept
is	O
to	O
model	O
entities	O
that	O
are	O
autonomous	O
in	O
their	O
environment	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
In	O
artificial	B-Application
intelligence	I-Application
and	O
cognitive	O
science	O
,	O
the	O
term	O
situated	B-General_Concept
refers	O
to	O
an	O
agent	B-General_Concept
which	O
is	O
embedded	B-Architecture
in	O
an	O
environment	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
The	O
term	O
situated	B-General_Concept
is	O
commonly	O
used	O
to	O
refer	O
to	O
robots	B-Algorithm
,	O
but	O
some	O
researchers	O
argue	O
that	O
software	O
agents	B-General_Concept
can	O
also	O
be	O
situated	B-General_Concept
if	O
:	O
</s>
<s>
Examples	O
might	O
include	O
web-based	O
agents	B-General_Concept
,	O
which	O
can	O
alter	O
data	O
or	O
trigger	O
processes	O
(	O
such	O
as	O
purchases	O
)	O
over	O
the	O
Internet	O
,	O
or	O
virtual-reality	O
bots	O
which	O
inhabit	O
and	O
change	O
virtual	O
worlds	O
,	O
such	O
as	O
Second	B-Application
Life	I-Application
.	O
</s>
<s>
Being	O
situated	B-General_Concept
is	O
generally	O
considered	O
to	O
be	O
part	O
of	O
being	O
embodied	O
,	O
but	O
it	O
is	O
useful	O
to	O
consider	O
each	O
perspective	O
individually	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
The	O
situated	B-General_Concept
perspective	O
emphasizes	O
that	O
intelligent	O
behavior	O
derives	O
from	O
the	O
environment	O
and	O
the	O
agent	B-General_Concept
's	O
interactions	O
with	O
it	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
The	O
nature	O
of	O
these	O
interactions	O
are	O
defined	O
by	O
an	O
agent	B-General_Concept
's	O
embodiment	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
The	O
most	O
important	O
attribute	O
of	O
a	O
system	O
driven	O
by	O
situated	B-General_Concept
AI	I-General_Concept
is	O
that	O
the	O
intelligence	O
is	O
controlled	O
by	O
a	O
set	O
of	O
independent	O
semi-autonomous	O
modules	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
In	O
the	O
original	O
systems	O
,	O
each	O
module	O
was	O
actually	O
a	O
separate	O
device	O
or	O
was	O
at	O
least	O
conceived	O
of	O
as	O
running	O
on	O
its	O
own	O
processing	B-Operating_System
thread	B-Operating_System
.	O
</s>
<s>
Generally	O
,	O
though	O
,	O
the	O
modules	O
are	O
just	O
abstractions	B-Application
.	O
</s>
<s>
In	O
this	O
respect	O
,	O
situated	B-General_Concept
AI	I-General_Concept
may	O
be	O
seen	O
as	O
a	O
software	B-General_Concept
engineering	I-General_Concept
approach	O
to	O
AI	B-Application
,	O
perhaps	O
akin	O
to	O
object	B-Language
oriented	I-Language
design	I-Language
.	O
</s>
<s>
Situated	B-General_Concept
AI	I-General_Concept
is	O
often	O
associated	O
with	O
reactive	B-Application
planning	I-Application
,	O
but	O
the	O
two	O
are	O
not	O
synonymous	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Brooks	O
advocated	O
an	O
extreme	O
version	O
of	O
cognitive	O
minimalism	O
which	O
required	O
initially	O
that	O
the	O
behavior	O
modules	O
were	O
finite	B-Architecture
state	I-Architecture
machines	I-Architecture
and	O
thus	O
contained	O
no	O
conventional	O
memory	O
or	O
learning	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
This	O
is	O
associated	O
with	O
reactive	O
AI	B-Application
because	O
reactive	O
AI	B-Application
requires	O
reacting	O
to	O
the	O
current	O
state	O
of	O
the	O
world	O
,	O
not	O
to	O
an	O
agent	B-General_Concept
's	O
memory	O
or	O
preconception	O
of	O
that	O
world	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
However	O
,	O
learning	O
is	O
obviously	O
key	O
to	O
realistic	O
strong	O
AI	B-Application
,	O
so	O
this	O
constraint	O
has	O
been	O
relaxed	O
,	O
though	O
not	O
entirely	O
abandoned	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
The	O
situated	B-General_Concept
AI	I-General_Concept
community	O
has	O
presented	O
several	O
solutions	O
to	O
modeling	O
decision-making	O
processes	O
,	O
also	O
known	O
as	O
action	O
selection	O
mechanisms	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
The	O
first	O
attempt	O
to	O
solve	O
this	O
problem	O
goes	O
back	O
to	O
subsumption	B-Architecture
architectures	I-Architecture
,	O
which	O
were	O
in	O
fact	O
more	O
an	O
implementation	O
technique	O
than	O
an	O
algorithm	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
However	O
,	O
motor	O
schemas	O
and	O
process	O
description	O
languages	O
are	O
two	O
other	O
approaches	O
that	O
have	O
been	O
used	O
with	O
success	O
for	O
autonomous	O
robots	B-Algorithm
.	O
</s>
<s>
Arsenio	O
,	O
Artur	O
M	O
.	O
(	O
2004	O
)	O
Towards	O
an	O
embodied	O
and	O
situated	B-General_Concept
AI	I-General_Concept
,	O
In	O
:	O
Proceedings	O
of	O
the	O
International	O
FLAIRS	O
conference	O
,	O
2004	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
The	O
Artificial	O
Life	O
Route	O
To	O
Artificial	B-Application
Intelligence	I-Application
:	O
Building	O
Embodied	O
,	O
Situated	B-General_Concept
Agents	I-General_Concept
,	O
Luc	O
Steels	O
and	O
Rodney	O
Brooks	O
Eds.	O
,	O
Lawrence	O
Erlbaum	O
Publishing	O
,	O
1995	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Hendriks-Jansen	O
,	O
Horst	O
(	O
1996	O
)	O
Catching	O
Ourselves	O
in	O
the	O
Act	O
:	O
Situated	B-General_Concept
Activity	O
,	O
Interactive	O
Emergence	O
,	O
Evolution	O
,	O
and	O
Human	O
Thought	O
.	O
</s>
