<s>
The	O
Internet	O
uses	O
the	O
Domain	B-Protocol
Name	I-Protocol
System	I-Protocol
(	O
DNS	B-Protocol
)	O
to	O
associate	O
numeric	O
computer	O
IP	B-Protocol
addresses	I-Protocol
with	O
human-readable	O
names	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
The	O
top	O
level	O
of	O
the	O
domain	O
name	O
hierarchy	O
,	O
the	O
DNS	B-Protocol
root	I-Protocol
,	O
contains	O
the	O
top-level	O
domains	O
that	O
appear	O
as	O
the	O
suffixes	O
of	O
all	O
Internet	O
domain	O
names	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
The	O
most	O
widely	O
used	O
(	O
and	O
first	O
)	O
DNS	B-Protocol
root	I-Protocol
is	O
administered	O
by	O
the	O
Internet	B-Application
Corporation	I-Application
for	I-Application
Assigned	I-Application
Names	I-Application
and	I-Application
Numbers	I-Application
(	O
ICANN	B-Application
)	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
In	O
addition	O
,	O
several	O
organizations	O
operate	O
alternative	B-Protocol
DNS	I-Protocol
roots	I-Protocol
,	O
often	O
referred	O
to	O
as	O
alt	B-Protocol
roots	I-Protocol
.	O
</s>
<s>
These	O
alternative	O
domain	B-Protocol
name	I-Protocol
systems	I-Protocol
operate	O
their	O
own	O
root	B-Application
name	I-Application
servers	I-Application
and	O
commonly	O
administer	O
their	O
own	O
specific	O
name	O
spaces	O
consisting	O
of	O
custom	O
top-level	O
domains	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
The	O
DNS	B-Protocol
root	I-Protocol
zone	I-Protocol
consists	O
of	O
pointers	O
to	O
the	O
authoritative	O
domain	B-Protocol
name	I-Protocol
servers	I-Protocol
for	O
all	O
top-level	O
domains	O
(	O
TLDs	O
)	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
The	O
root	O
zone	O
is	O
hosted	O
on	O
a	O
collection	O
of	O
root	B-Application
servers	I-Application
operated	O
by	O
several	O
organizations	O
around	O
the	O
world	O
that	O
all	O
use	O
a	O
specific	O
,	O
approved	O
list	O
of	O
domains	O
that	O
is	O
managed	O
by	O
ICANN	B-Application
.	O
</s>
<s>
By	O
contrast	O
,	O
alternative	O
roots	O
typically	O
include	O
pointers	O
to	O
all	O
of	O
the	O
TLD	O
servers	O
for	O
domains	O
delegated	O
by	O
ICANN	B-Application
,	O
as	O
well	O
as	O
name	B-Protocol
servers	I-Protocol
for	O
other	O
,	O
custom	O
top-level	O
domains	O
that	O
are	O
not	O
sanctioned	O
by	O
ICANN	B-Application
.	O
</s>
<s>
Zach	O
Bastick	O
proposes	O
that	O
alternative	B-Protocol
DNS	I-Protocol
roots	I-Protocol
have	O
allowed	O
for	O
more	O
democratic	O
control	O
of	O
the	O
Internet	O
:	O
</s>
<s>
Unless	O
one	O
specifically	O
changes	O
their	O
DNS	B-Protocol
resolution	O
settings	O
,	O
alternative	B-Protocol
DNS	I-Protocol
top	O
level	O
domains	O
are	O
generally	O
unreachable	O
,	O
and	O
very	O
few	O
Internet	O
service	O
providers	O
provide	O
this	O
configuration	O
by	O
default	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Some	O
organizations	O
provide	O
alternative	B-Protocol
DNS	I-Protocol
root	I-Protocol
services	O
,	O
such	O
as	O
additional	O
top-level	O
domains	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Handshake	O
is	O
a	O
decentralized	O
implementation	O
of	O
a	O
DNS	B-Protocol
root	I-Protocol
zone	I-Protocol
using	O
blockchain	B-Application
and	O
cryptocurrency	O
technology	O
to	O
create	O
a	O
peer-to-peer	O
alternative	O
to	O
the	O
13	O
root	B-Application
name	I-Application
servers	I-Application
managed	O
by	O
ICANN	B-Application
.	O
</s>
<s>
Unlike	O
other	O
attempts	O
,	O
Handshake	O
does	O
not	O
aim	O
to	O
replace	O
the	O
existing	O
DNS	B-Protocol
;	O
rather	O
,	O
it	O
seeks	O
to	O
supplement	O
and	O
enhance	O
it	O
by	O
allowing	O
anyone	O
to	O
bid	O
,	O
register	O
,	O
and	O
manage	O
their	O
own	O
TLDs	O
without	O
an	O
intermediate	O
registrar	O
or	O
delegating	O
authority	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Since	O
the	O
root	O
zone	O
file	O
records	O
are	O
not	O
centrally	O
managed	O
,	O
and	O
instead	O
are	O
stored	O
on	O
a	O
public	O
blockchain	B-Application
,	O
owners	O
of	O
Handshake	O
TLDs	O
can	O
add	O
or	O
change	O
top-level	O
resource	O
records	O
to	O
delegate	O
authoritative	O
name	B-Protocol
servers	I-Protocol
and	O
set	O
up	O
DNSSEC	B-Protocol
zone	O
signing	O
directly	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Existing	O
TLDs	O
are	O
reserved	O
in	O
the	O
Handshake	O
blockchain	B-Application
such	O
that	O
resolving	O
traditional	O
domain	O
names	O
(	O
i.e.	O
</s>
<s>
zones	O
under	O
.com	O
,	O
.org	O
,	O
.net	B-Application
,	O
etc	O
.	O
)	O
</s>
<s>
through	O
a	O
Handshake	O
node	O
or	O
name	B-Protocol
server	I-Protocol
are	O
directed	O
back	O
to	O
ICANN	B-Application
's	O
root	B-Application
servers	I-Application
.	O
</s>
<s>
Namecoin	O
is	O
a	O
blockchain	B-Application
and	O
cryptocurrency	O
to	O
support	O
the	O
alternative	O
top-level	O
domain	O
.bit	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
OpenNIC	O
is	O
a	O
user	O
owned	O
and	O
controlled	O
alternative	O
to	O
InterNIC	O
and	O
ICANN	B-Application
providing	O
a	O
non-national	O
democratic	O
alternative	O
to	O
traditional	O
domain	B-Protocol
registries	I-Protocol
.	O
</s>
<s>
OpenNIC	O
servers	O
are	O
able	O
to	O
resolve	O
all	O
ICANN	B-Application
top-level	O
domains	O
,	O
some	O
OpenNIC	O
original	O
top-level	O
domains	O
,	O
and	O
the	O
resolution	O
of	O
other	O
Alternate	B-Protocol
DNS	I-Protocol
Roots	I-Protocol
with	O
which	O
they	O
have	O
reached	O
peering	O
agreements	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Yeti	O
DNS	B-Protocol
Project	O
is	O
an	O
attempt	O
to	O
build	O
an	O
alternative	O
root	B-Application
server	I-Application
dedicated	O
to	O
IPv6	B-Protocol
.	O
</s>
<s>
Sponsored	O
by	O
a	O
Chinese	O
state	O
agency	O
,	O
the	O
project	O
aims	O
at	O
experimenting	O
with	O
different	O
new	O
DNS-related	O
technology	O
and	O
enabling	O
sovereign	O
countries	O
to	O
explore	O
and	O
control	O
the	O
internet	O
and	O
enhance	O
their	O
network	B-Application
sovereignty	I-Application
.	O
</s>
<s>
.chn	O
is	O
a	O
new	O
top-level	O
domain	O
with	O
its	O
own	O
root	O
DNS	B-Protocol
server	I-Protocol
for	O
an	B-Operating_System
Internet	I-Operating_System
of	I-Operating_System
Things	I-Operating_System
(	O
IoT	B-Operating_System
)	O
network	O
in	O
China	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
The	O
company	O
developing	O
this	O
alternative	O
root	O
claims	O
that	O
China	O
has	O
its	O
own	O
intellectual	O
right	O
on	O
this	O
new	O
alternative	O
domain	O
name	O
root	O
and	O
the	O
associated	O
IoT	B-Operating_System
network	O
,	O
and	O
that	O
it	O
will	O
become	O
the	O
second	O
computer	O
network	O
in	O
the	O
world	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
It	O
is	O
claimed	O
to	O
be	O
part	O
of	O
a	O
"	O
IPv9	O
"	O
decimal	O
network/numeric	O
domain	B-Protocol
name	I-Protocol
system	I-Protocol
developed	O
and	O
innovated	O
in	O
China	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
The	O
Russian	O
National	O
Domain	B-Protocol
Name	I-Protocol
System	I-Protocol
(	O
)	O
is	O
an	O
alternative	B-Protocol
DNS	I-Protocol
root	I-Protocol
project	O
started	O
in	O
2019	O
by	O
Roskomnadzor	O
,	O
a	O
government	O
department	O
,	O
and	O
is	O
to	O
gradually	O
become	O
mandatory	O
for	O
all	O
ISPs	O
in	O
Russia	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
The	O
mission	O
of	O
the	O
project	O
is	O
to	O
provide	O
an	O
alternative	B-Protocol
DNS	I-Protocol
root	I-Protocol
for	O
all	O
users	O
of	O
the	O
Internet	O
within	O
Russia	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
The	O
main	O
goal	O
is	O
to	O
continue	O
the	O
functioning	O
of	O
the	O
Russian	O
Internet	O
subnetwork	O
in	O
case	O
of	O
its	O
disconnection	O
from	O
the	O
rest	O
of	O
the	O
Internet	O
(	O
Sovereign	B-Application
Internet	I-Application
Law	O
)	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Open	B-Protocol
Root	I-Protocol
Server	I-Protocol
Network	I-Protocol
(	O
ORSN	B-Protocol
)	O
was	O
a	O
network	O
of	O
Domain	B-Protocol
Name	I-Protocol
System	I-Protocol
root	B-Application
nameservers	I-Application
for	O
the	O
Internet	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
ORSN	B-Protocol
root	O
zone	O
information	O
was	O
normally	O
kept	O
in	O
synchronization	O
with	O
the	O
"	O
official	O
"	O
root	B-Application
nameservers	I-Application
coordinated	O
by	O
ICANN	B-Application
.	O
</s>
<s>
ORSN	B-Protocol
Public	O
DNS	B-Protocol
Servers	I-Protocol
were	O
operated	O
by	O
the	O
community	O
of	O
ORSN	B-Protocol
,	O
providing	O
Domain	B-Protocol
Name	I-Protocol
System	I-Protocol
access	O
freely	O
for	O
everyone	O
,	O
without	O
any	O
limitation	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
ORSN	B-Protocol
public	O
DNS	B-Protocol
servers	I-Protocol
did	O
not	O
log	O
usage	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
"	O
The	O
ORSN	B-Protocol
project	O
was	O
canceled	O
on	O
May	O
2019	O
and	O
will	O
never	O
come	O
back.	O
"	O
</s>
<s>
AlterNIC	O
was	O
created	O
before	O
ICANN	B-Application
's	O
creation	O
to	O
challenge	O
the	O
monopoly	O
of	O
InterNIC	O
on	O
domain	O
name	O
governance	O
at	O
the	O
time	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
eDNS	O
(	O
Enhanced	O
Domain	B-Protocol
Name	I-Protocol
Service	I-Protocol
)	O
was	O
founded	O
by	O
a	O
coalition	O
of	O
ISPs	O
led	O
by	O
Karl	O
Denninger	O
of	O
the	O
Chicago-area	O
MCSNet	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
One	O
of	O
the	O
notable	O
challengers	O
to	O
ICANN	B-Application
's	O
control	O
of	O
the	O
DNS	B-Protocol
namespace	O
was	O
Open	O
RSC	O
(	O
Open	O
Root	B-Application
Server	I-Application
Confederation	O
)	O
,	O
a	O
group	O
that	O
grew	O
out	O
of	O
private	O
discussions	O
and	O
developed	O
into	O
a	O
public	O
mailing	B-Protocol
list	I-Protocol
.	O
</s>
<s>
It	O
grew	O
large	O
enough	O
that	O
the	O
group	O
decided	O
to	O
submit	O
an	O
application	O
to	O
the	O
United	O
States	O
government	O
to	O
run	O
the	O
DNS	B-Protocol
.	O
</s>
<s>
The	O
organization	O
posted	O
bylaws	O
and	O
articles	O
of	O
incorporation	O
outlining	O
ORSC	O
's	O
position	O
following	O
extensive	O
public	O
discussion	O
regarding	O
the	O
manner	O
in	O
which	O
the	O
DNS	B-Protocol
was	O
operated	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
ICANN	B-Application
chairwoman	O
Esther	O
Dyson	O
acknowledged	O
adopting	O
features	O
such	O
as	O
membership	O
from	O
ORSC	O
in	O
her	O
response	O
to	O
the	O
United	O
States	O
Department	O
of	O
Commerce	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
ORSC	O
publishes	O
a	O
root	O
zone	O
containing	O
additional	O
top	O
level	O
domains	O
not	O
found	O
in	O
the	O
ICANN	B-Application
root	O
zone	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Microsoft	O
offered	O
the	O
RealNames	B-Protocol
service	O
on	O
its	O
Internet	O
Explorer	O
browser	O
address	O
bar	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
RealNames	B-Protocol
,	O
to	O
users	O
of	O
Internet	O
Explorer	O
,	O
was	O
in	O
effect	O
a	O
domain	B-Protocol
registry	I-Protocol
.	O
</s>
<s>
RealNames	B-Protocol
shut	O
down	O
operations	O
in	O
2002	O
following	O
a	O
decision	O
by	O
Microsoft	O
to	O
redirect	O
the	O
1	O
billion	O
page	O
views	O
per	O
calendar	O
quarter	O
that	O
RealNames	B-Protocol
was	O
resolving	O
from	O
the	O
browser	O
address	O
bar	O
into	O
its	O
MSN	O
search	O
engine	O
.	O
</s>
