<s>
An	O
alkaline	B-Algorithm
battery	I-Algorithm
(	O
IEC	O
code	O
:	O
L	O
)	O
is	O
a	O
type	O
of	O
primary	B-Algorithm
battery	I-Algorithm
where	O
the	O
electrolyte	O
(	O
most	O
commonly	O
potassium	O
hydroxide	O
)	O
has	O
a	O
pH	O
value	O
above	O
7	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Typically	O
these	O
batteries	O
derive	O
energy	O
from	O
the	O
reaction	O
between	O
zinc	B-Application
metal	I-Application
and	O
manganese	O
dioxide	O
,	O
nickel	O
and	O
cadmium	O
,	O
or	O
nickel	O
and	O
hydrogen	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Compared	O
with	O
zinc	B-Algorithm
–	I-Algorithm
carbon	I-Algorithm
batteries	I-Algorithm
of	O
the	O
Leclanché	B-Algorithm
cell	I-Algorithm
or	O
zinc	B-Application
chloride	O
types	O
,	O
alkaline	B-Algorithm
batteries	I-Algorithm
have	O
a	O
higher	O
energy	O
density	O
and	O
longer	O
shelf	O
life	O
,	O
yet	O
provide	O
the	O
same	O
voltage	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
The	O
alkaline	B-Algorithm
battery	I-Algorithm
gets	O
its	O
name	O
because	O
it	O
has	O
an	O
alkaline	O
electrolyte	O
of	O
potassium	O
hydroxide	O
(	O
KOH	O
)	O
instead	O
of	O
the	O
acidic	O
ammonium	O
chloride	O
(	O
NH4Cl	O
)	O
or	O
zinc	B-Application
chloride	O
(	O
ZnCl2	O
)	O
electrolyte	O
of	O
the	O
zinc	B-Algorithm
–	I-Algorithm
carbon	I-Algorithm
batteries	I-Algorithm
.	O
</s>
<s>
Alkaline	B-Algorithm
batteries	I-Algorithm
account	O
for	O
80%	O
of	O
manufactured	O
batteries	O
in	O
the	O
US	O
and	O
over	O
10	O
billion	O
individual	O
units	O
produced	O
worldwide	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
In	O
Japan	O
,	O
alkaline	B-Algorithm
batteries	I-Algorithm
account	O
for	O
46%	O
of	O
all	O
primary	B-Algorithm
battery	I-Algorithm
sales	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
In	O
Switzerland	O
,	O
alkaline	B-Algorithm
batteries	I-Algorithm
account	O
for	O
68%	O
,	O
in	O
the	O
UK	O
60%	O
and	O
in	O
the	O
EU	O
47%	O
of	O
all	O
battery	O
sales	O
including	O
secondary	O
types	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Alkaline	B-Algorithm
batteries	I-Algorithm
contain	O
zinc	B-Application
(	O
Zn	O
)	O
and	O
manganese	O
dioxide	O
(	O
MnO2	O
)	O
(	O
Health	O
codes	O
1	O
)	O
,	O
which	O
is	O
a	O
cumulative	O
neurotoxin	O
and	O
can	O
be	O
toxic	O
in	O
higher	O
concentrations	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
However	O
,	O
compared	O
to	O
other	O
battery	B-Algorithm
types	I-Algorithm
,	O
the	O
toxicity	O
of	O
alkaline	B-Algorithm
batteries	I-Algorithm
is	O
moderate	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Alkaline	B-Algorithm
batteries	I-Algorithm
are	O
used	O
in	O
many	O
household	O
items	O
such	O
as	O
MP3	O
players	O
,	O
CD	B-Device
players	I-Device
,	O
digital	B-Device
cameras	I-Device
,	O
toys	O
,	O
flashlights	O
,	O
and	O
radios	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
The	O
modern	O
alkaline	O
dry	O
battery	O
,	O
using	O
the	O
zinc/manganese	O
dioxide	O
chemistry	O
,	O
was	O
invented	O
by	O
the	O
Canadian	O
engineer	O
Lewis	O
Urry	O
in	O
the	O
1950s	O
in	O
Canada	O
before	O
he	O
started	O
working	O
for	O
Union	O
Carbide	O
's	O
Eveready	O
Battery	O
division	O
in	O
Cleveland	O
,	O
OH	O
,	O
building	O
on	O
earlier	O
work	O
by	O
Edison	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Marsal	O
filed	O
US	O
patent	O
(	O
2,960,558	O
)	O
for	O
the	O
alkaline	B-Algorithm
battery	I-Algorithm
.	O
</s>
<s>
When	O
alkaline	B-Algorithm
batteries	I-Algorithm
were	O
introduced	O
in	O
the	O
late	O
1960s	O
,	O
their	O
zinc	B-Application
electrodes	O
(	O
in	O
common	O
with	O
the	O
then	O
ubiquitous	O
carbon-zinc	B-Algorithm
cells	O
)	O
had	O
a	O
surface	O
film	O
of	O
mercury	O
amalgam	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Its	O
purpose	O
was	O
to	O
control	O
electrolytic	O
action	O
on	O
impurities	O
in	O
the	O
zinc	B-Application
;	O
that	O
unwanted	O
electrolytic	O
action	O
would	O
reduce	O
shelf	O
life	O
and	O
promote	O
leakage	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
When	O
reductions	O
in	O
mercury	O
content	O
were	O
mandated	O
by	O
various	O
legislatures	O
,	O
it	O
became	O
necessary	O
to	O
greatly	O
improve	O
the	O
purity	O
and	O
consistency	O
of	O
the	O
zinc	B-Application
.	O
</s>
<s>
In	O
an	O
alkaline	B-Algorithm
battery	I-Algorithm
,	O
the	O
negative	O
electrode	O
is	O
zinc	B-Application
and	O
the	O
positive	O
electrode	O
is	O
manganese	O
dioxide	O
(	O
MnO2	O
)	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
The	O
alkaline	O
electrolyte	O
of	O
potassium	O
hydroxide	O
(	O
KOH	O
)	O
is	O
not	O
consumed	O
during	O
the	O
reaction	O
(	O
it	O
is	O
regenerated	O
)	O
,	O
only	O
the	O
zinc	B-Application
and	O
MnO2	O
are	O
consumed	O
during	O
discharge	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
The	O
capacity	O
of	O
an	O
alkaline	B-Algorithm
battery	I-Algorithm
is	O
greater	O
than	O
an	O
equal	O
size	O
Leclanché	B-Algorithm
cell	I-Algorithm
or	O
zinc	B-Application
chloride	O
cell	O
because	O
the	O
manganese	O
dioxide	O
is	O
purer	O
and	O
denser	O
,	O
and	O
less	O
space	O
is	O
taken	O
up	O
by	O
internal	O
components	O
such	O
as	O
electrodes	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
An	O
alkaline	B-Algorithm
cell	I-Algorithm
can	O
provide	O
between	O
three	O
and	O
five	O
times	O
the	O
capacity	O
of	O
an	O
acidic	O
cell	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
The	O
capacity	O
of	O
an	O
alkaline	B-Algorithm
battery	I-Algorithm
is	O
strongly	O
dependent	O
on	O
the	O
load	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
An	O
AA-sized	O
alkaline	B-Algorithm
battery	I-Algorithm
might	O
have	O
an	O
effective	O
capacity	O
of	O
3000mAh	O
at	O
low	O
drain	O
,	O
but	O
at	O
a	O
load	O
of	O
1	O
ampere	B-General_Concept
,	O
which	O
is	O
common	O
for	O
digital	B-Device
cameras	I-Device
,	O
the	O
capacity	O
could	O
be	O
as	O
little	O
as	O
700mAh	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Unlike	O
Leclanché	B-Algorithm
cells	I-Algorithm
,	O
the	O
alkaline	B-Algorithm
cell	I-Algorithm
delivers	O
about	O
as	O
much	O
capacity	O
on	O
intermittent	O
or	O
continuous	O
light	O
loads	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
On	O
a	O
heavy	O
load	O
,	O
capacity	O
is	O
reduced	O
on	O
continuous	O
discharge	O
compared	O
with	O
intermittent	O
discharge	O
,	O
but	O
the	O
reduction	O
is	O
less	O
than	O
for	O
Leclanche	B-Algorithm
cells	I-Algorithm
.	O
</s>
<s>
The	O
nominal	O
voltage	O
of	O
a	O
fresh	O
alkaline	B-Algorithm
cell	I-Algorithm
as	O
established	O
by	O
manufacturer	O
standards	O
is	O
1.5	O
V	O
.	O
The	O
actual	O
zero-load	O
voltage	O
of	O
a	O
new	O
alkaline	B-Algorithm
battery	I-Algorithm
ranges	O
from	O
1.50	O
to	O
1.65	O
V	O
,	O
depending	O
on	O
the	O
purity	O
of	O
the	O
manganese	O
dioxide	O
used	O
and	O
the	O
contents	O
of	O
zinc	B-Application
oxide	O
in	O
the	O
electrolyte	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
The	O
amount	O
of	O
electrical	O
current	O
an	O
alkaline	B-Algorithm
battery	I-Algorithm
can	O
deliver	O
is	O
roughly	O
proportional	O
to	O
its	O
physical	O
size	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
A	O
rule	O
of	O
thumb	O
is	O
that	O
an	O
AA	B-Algorithm
alkaline	B-Algorithm
battery	I-Algorithm
can	O
deliver	O
700	O
mA	O
without	O
any	O
significant	O
heating	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Larger	O
cells	O
,	O
such	O
as	O
C	B-Algorithm
and	O
D	O
cells	O
,	O
can	O
deliver	O
more	O
current	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Applications	O
requiring	O
currents	O
of	O
several	O
amperes	B-General_Concept
such	O
as	O
powerful	O
portable	O
audio	O
equipment	O
require	O
D-sized	O
cells	O
to	O
handle	O
the	O
increased	O
load	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
In	O
comparison	O
,	O
Lithium-iron	B-Device
and	O
Ni-MH	B-Device
batteries	I-Device
can	O
handle	O
2	O
amps	O
with	O
ease	O
on	O
the	O
standard	O
AA	B-Algorithm
size	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Alkaline	B-Algorithm
batteries	I-Algorithm
are	O
manufactured	O
in	O
standard	O
cylindrical	O
forms	O
interchangeable	O
with	O
zinc	B-Algorithm
–	I-Algorithm
carbon	I-Algorithm
batteries	I-Algorithm
,	O
and	O
in	O
button	O
forms	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Several	O
individual	O
cells	O
may	O
be	O
interconnected	O
to	O
form	O
a	O
true	O
"	O
battery	O
"	O
,	O
such	O
as	O
the	O
9-volt	B-Algorithm
PP3-size	I-Algorithm
battery	I-Algorithm
.	O
</s>
<s>
The	O
negative	O
electrode	O
is	O
composed	O
of	O
a	O
dispersion	O
of	O
zinc	B-Application
powder	O
in	O
a	O
gel	O
containing	O
the	O
potassium	O
hydroxide	O
electrolyte	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
The	O
zinc	B-Application
powder	O
provides	O
more	O
surface	O
area	O
for	O
chemical	O
reactions	O
to	O
take	O
place	O
,	O
compared	O
to	O
a	O
metal	O
can	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
To	O
prevent	O
gassing	O
of	O
the	O
cell	O
at	O
the	O
end	O
of	O
its	O
life	O
,	O
more	O
manganese	O
dioxide	O
is	O
used	O
than	O
required	O
to	O
react	O
with	O
all	O
the	O
zinc	B-Application
.	O
</s>
<s>
When	O
describing	O
AAA	B-Library
,	I-Library
AA	I-Library
,	I-Library
C	I-Library
,	I-Library
sub-C	I-Library
and	I-Library
D	I-Library
size	I-Library
cells	I-Library
,	O
the	O
negative	O
electrode	O
is	O
connected	O
to	O
the	O
flat	O
end	O
,	O
and	O
the	O
positive	O
terminal	O
is	O
the	O
end	O
with	O
the	O
raised	O
button	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Some	O
alkaline	B-Algorithm
batteries	I-Algorithm
are	O
designed	O
to	O
be	O
recharged	O
a	O
few	O
times	O
,	O
and	O
are	O
described	O
as	O
rechargeable	B-Algorithm
alkaline	I-Algorithm
batteries	I-Algorithm
.	O
</s>
<s>
Attempts	O
to	O
recharge	B-Architecture
standard	O
alkaline	B-Algorithm
batteries	I-Algorithm
may	O
cause	O
rupture	O
,	O
or	O
the	O
leaking	O
of	O
hazardous	O
liquids	O
which	O
will	O
corrode	O
the	O
equipment	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
However	O
,	O
it	O
is	O
reported	O
that	O
standard	O
alkaline	B-Algorithm
batteries	I-Algorithm
can	O
often	O
be	O
recharged	O
a	O
few	O
times	O
(	O
typically	O
not	O
more	O
than	O
ten	O
)	O
,	O
albeit	O
with	O
reduced	O
capacity	O
after	O
each	O
charge	O
;	O
chargers	O
are	O
available	O
commercially	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
reported	O
that	O
it	O
tested	O
two	O
such	O
chargers	O
with	O
Energizer	O
alkaline	B-Algorithm
batteries	I-Algorithm
,	O
finding	O
that	O
battery	O
capacity	O
dropped	O
on	O
average	O
to	O
10%	O
of	O
its	O
original	O
value	O
,	O
with	O
huge	O
variations	O
,	O
after	O
two	O
cycles	O
(	O
without	O
stating	O
how	O
depleted	O
they	O
were	O
before	O
recharging	O
)	O
after	O
recharging	O
them	O
two	O
times	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
In	O
2017	O
Gautam	O
G	O
.	O
Yadav	O
published	O
papers	O
reporting	O
that	O
alkaline	B-Algorithm
batteries	I-Algorithm
made	O
by	O
interleaving	O
the	O
interlayers	O
with	O
copper	O
ions	O
could	O
be	O
recharged	O
for	O
over	O
6,000	O
cycles	O
due	O
to	O
the	O
theoretical	O
second	O
electron	O
capacity	O
of	O
manganese	O
dioxide	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
The	O
energy	O
density	O
of	O
these	O
rechargeable	B-Architecture
batteries	I-Architecture
with	O
copper	O
intercalated	O
manganese	O
dioxide	O
is	O
reported	O
to	O
be	O
over	O
160Wh/L	O
,	O
the	O
best	O
among	O
the	O
aqueous-based	O
chemistries	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
It	O
could	O
be	O
capable	O
of	O
energy	O
densities	O
comparable	O
to	O
lithium-ion	O
(	O
>	O
250Wh/L	O
)	O
if	O
zinc	B-Application
utilization	O
in	O
the	O
batteries	O
were	O
improved	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Alkaline	B-Algorithm
batteries	I-Algorithm
are	O
prone	O
to	O
leaking	O
potassium	O
hydroxide	O
,	O
a	O
caustic	O
agent	O
that	O
can	O
cause	O
respiratory	O
,	O
eye	O
and	O
skin	O
irritation	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
The	O
risk	O
of	O
this	O
can	O
be	O
reduced	O
by	O
not	O
attempting	O
to	O
recharge	B-Architecture
disposable	O
alkaline	B-Algorithm
cells	I-Algorithm
,	O
by	O
not	O
mixing	O
different	O
battery	B-Algorithm
types	I-Algorithm
in	O
the	O
same	O
device	O
,	O
by	O
replacing	O
all	O
of	O
the	O
batteries	O
at	O
the	O
same	O
time	O
,	O
by	O
storing	O
batteries	O
in	O
a	O
dry	O
place	O
and	O
at	O
room	O
temperature	O
,	O
and	O
by	O
removing	O
batteries	O
for	O
storage	O
of	O
devices	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Since	O
alkaline	B-Algorithm
batteries	I-Algorithm
were	O
made	O
with	O
less	O
mercury	O
beginning	O
in	O
1996	O
,	O
alkaline	B-Algorithm
batteries	I-Algorithm
are	O
allowed	O
to	O
be	O
disposed	O
of	O
as	O
regular	O
domestic	O
waste	O
in	O
some	O
locations	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
However	O
,	O
older	O
alkaline	B-Algorithm
batteries	I-Algorithm
with	O
mercury	O
,	O
and	O
the	O
remaining	O
other	O
heavy	O
metals	O
and	O
corrosive	O
chemicals	O
in	O
all	O
batteries	O
(	O
new	O
and	O
old	O
)	O
,	O
still	O
present	O
problems	O
for	O
disposal	O
—	O
especially	O
in	O
landfills	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
In	O
Europe	O
,	O
battery	O
disposal	O
is	O
controlled	O
by	O
the	O
WEEE	O
Directive	O
and	O
Battery	O
Directive	O
regulations	O
,	O
and	O
as	O
such	O
alkaline	B-Algorithm
batteries	I-Algorithm
must	O
not	O
be	O
thrown	O
in	O
with	O
domestic	O
waste	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
The	O
use	O
of	O
disposable	B-Algorithm
batteries	I-Algorithm
increases	O
by	O
5	O
–	O
6%	O
every	O
year	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
In	O
the	O
past	O
,	O
used	O
batteries	O
ended	O
up	O
at	O
landfill	O
sites	O
,	O
but	O
in	O
2004	O
,	O
disposal	O
of	O
alkaline	B-Algorithm
batteries	I-Algorithm
at	O
landfill	O
sites	O
was	O
forbidden	O
by	O
an	O
EU	O
regulation	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
EU	O
member	O
countries	O
are	O
committed	O
to	O
recycling	O
50%	O
of	O
alkaline	B-Algorithm
batteries	I-Algorithm
by	O
2016	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
The	O
share	O
of	O
alkaline	B-Algorithm
batteries	I-Algorithm
is	O
approximately	O
80%	O
of	O
the	O
whole	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
In	O
the	O
US	O
,	O
only	O
one	O
state	O
,	O
California	O
,	O
requires	O
all	O
alkaline	B-Algorithm
batteries	I-Algorithm
to	O
be	O
recycled	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Vermont	O
also	O
has	O
a	O
statewide	O
alkaline	B-Algorithm
battery	I-Algorithm
collection	O
program	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
In	O
other	O
US	O
states	O
,	O
individuals	O
can	O
purchase	O
battery	B-Algorithm
recycling	I-Algorithm
kits	O
used	O
to	O
ship	O
batteries	O
to	O
recyclers	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Some	O
stores	O
such	O
as	O
IKEA	O
also	O
collect	O
alkaline	B-Algorithm
batteries	I-Algorithm
for	O
recycling	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
However	O
,	O
some	O
chain	O
stores	O
which	O
advertise	O
battery	B-Algorithm
recycling	I-Algorithm
(	O
such	O
as	O
Best	O
Buy	O
)	O
only	O
accept	O
rechargeable	B-Architecture
batteries	I-Architecture
and	O
will	O
generally	O
not	O
accept	O
alkaline	B-Algorithm
batteries	I-Algorithm
.	O
</s>
<s>
For	O
recycling	O
,	O
the	O
metals	O
from	O
crushed	O
alkaline	B-Algorithm
batteries	I-Algorithm
are	O
mechanically	O
separated	O
,	O
and	O
the	O
waste	O
black	O
mass	O
is	O
treated	O
chemically	O
to	O
separate	O
zinc	B-Application
,	O
manganese	O
dioxide	O
and	O
potassium	O
hydroxide	O
.	O
</s>
