Intercultural Factors in Web-based Training Systems1
Abstract: This paper is based on on-going research carried out
in the framework of an EU project aimed at enhancing knowledge management
(KM) in enterprises. It deals with the impact of intercultural factors
on the accessibility and presentation of eLearning content.
It reports on preliminary findings and discusses the issues which have
emerged so far in the contextual study and requirements analysis conducted
in preparation for designing Web-based training modules.
Once the empirical research is completed and the data analyzed, guidelines
will be proposed for developing Web-based training modules for culturally
heterogeneous user groups sharing the same professional background. Special
consideration will be given to interactive and community features.
Key Words: user interface design, usage-centered design, knowledge
management, Web-based training, interaction patterns, cross-cultural /
Categories: H.5.2, J.4
1 Background and Context of Research
This paper reports on on-going research carried out in the framework
of a transnational European project co-funded by the European Commission
under the Information Society Technologies Programme.
The aim of the project concerns the creation of customized Web-based
training (WBT) courses for a major manufacturer of helicopters in France,
who boasts a culturally highly diverse range of customers. Training is
normally included in the sales contract and precedes delivery of the aircraft.
Although all trainees are expected to be proficient in English and share
the same professional context, it can be assumed that their varied cultural
values, traditions and attitudes have an influence on their understanding
of the content and their cognitive approach to its presentation.2
Generally speaking, apart from cultural background, factors such as
age, experience, profession (e.g. pilots vs. technicians), rank and gender
tend to play an important role in classroom behaviour. In this study, however,
gender is a negligible factor, given the extremely small number of women
involved in helicopter training.
 A short
version of this article was presented at the I-KNOW '03 (Graz, Austria,
July 2-4, 2003).
 This also applies to the instructors, whose mother
tongue is French, but who are expected to teach courses in English.
At present, the customization of training to user requirements is accomplished
exclusively by the individual instructors. Based on their experience, didactic
skills and/or intuition, they adapt the courses to the requirements, level
of experience and prior knowledge, as well as to the cultural expectations
and traditions of the trainees, especially as far as the interaction between
teacher and students is concerned.
A major challenge faced by the helicopter manufacturer is the need to
recognize and integrate the different requirements and expectations of
its culturally diverse customer base into its training activities. Increased
customer demand and cost savings are the main motivating factors behind
its eLearning initiatives. The company intends to set up a learning management
system for its clients worldwide so as to reduce the time pilots and technicians
have to spend on-site to learn about and familiarize themselves with new
2 The Objectives of the Project
At an early stage in the project the project partners realized that
intercultural factors would have to be taken into account at all levels
(analysis of user requirements, development and design, implementation
and evaluation) for the application to succeed. If on-site training is
supplemented by eLearning components, cultural adaptation and adaptability,
respectively, will have to be integrated into the design of the modules.
The crucial question addressed by the research is whether it is possible
to design Web-based training modules for a culturally heterogeneous, but
professionally homogeneous user group in such a way that they can be understood
and are acceptable without further customization or localization. A corollary
to this question is the extent to which particular requirements are truly
culture-specific or genre-specific, i.e., for example, whether in the case
of pilots - as opposed to technicians - professional background including
a special process of selection tends to override cultural influences.
Given the shared professional background of the trainees and thus their
familiarity with the context of use, it is assumed that at least as far
as the information transfer part is concerned, it should be possible to
design culturally "neutral" modules acceptable to all or most
users. This assumption is based on studies like the one by [Bourges-Waldegg
and Scrivener 2000], who argue that cultural differences affecting
usability and design are mainly representational and that the meaning of
a representation is determined by its context of use.
This hypothesis will be tested with the help of a pilot application
about the VEMD (Virtual Engine Multifunctional Display). The WBT module
being developed will impart know-how about the basic functions, components
and operating modes of this instrument now common to most helicopters.
For the development of the pilot application, the guidelines and recommendations
with regard to interface design for an international audience are taken
into account (see for example [Del Galdo and Nielsen 1996]).
This will ensure that the modules are designed in a way that future customization
is possible without any major redesign.
With regard to interactive and community features, however, intercultural
factors are expected to have a major impact on the accessibility and acceptance
of the eLearning initiative which is why the usability tests, and in particular
the end-user tests, will focus on these features.
The type of user sample described here, i.e. shared professional background
but a very heterogeneous cultural background, is actually far from rare
and can be encountered in many international settings such as multinational
companies, consultancy firms, banks or non-governmental organizations which
operate or have subsidiaries worldwide. Many universities, too, have an
increasingly international student body and therefore have to consider
the issue of the cultural adequacy of their learning environments, both
real and virtual.
The more wide-reaching aims of the present study consist in developing
a framework for analyzing the use of ICT (information and communication
technologies) in cross-cultural eLearning contexts and to develop recommendations
for maximizing successful intercultural communication online.
3 Scope of Study and Methodology
The present study is primarily concerned with the theoretical underpinning
for the analysis of the influence of (inter-)cultural factors on the representation
and transfer of knowledge in the realm of eLearning. In preparation for
the design of WBT modules, a knowledge management system was installed
to bring together all the documents, illustrations, graphics, audio and
video files relevant for their development. This was accompanied by a contextual
and requirements analysis for the future eLearning platform, conducted
largely by observing existing training methods.
Training requirements were therefore identified by participating in
a varied series of courses and trying to capture the experience and explicit
as well as tacit knowledge of the instructors when adapting the training
to the requirements of specific target groups. Participant observation
was complemented by semi-directed interviews, which were conducted with
key roles involved in and/or affected by course development, i.e. instructors,
course authors and designers as well as sub-contractors such as interpreters.
Trainees, too, were included in the interviews, which addressed human,
social and intercultural factors.
Demographic data on the trainees such as country of origin, age, professional
background (pilots, mechanics, and avionics specialists) and level of experience
will be collected by means of a student profiling tool which trainees have
to complete before attending a course. This tool has been developed as
part of the project in order to assess the trainees' level of know-how
and thus enable the course organizers to form more homogenous groups, which
in turn will facilitate the instructor's task.
As far as the usability testing of WBT modules is concerned, the
principles of participatory and iterative design are followed,
i.e. the involvement of users from an early stage in the development
process. In line with these principles, all evaluation results are fed
back into the design of the modules. The usability tests consist of
systematic reviews, which have been conducted with a series of
experts, i.e. instructors, designers and various project partners, to
identify possible usability problems at an early stage. These follow
the guidelines of so-called "heuristic evaluation" as
described by [Nielsen 1994] and precede and
complement end-user testing which will involve trainees from a
representative cross-section of the company's culturally diverse
The end-user tests will include scenarios and tasks taken from real-life.
Apart from general usability problems, the aim is to identify the possible
impact of intercultural factors, especially with regard to contextual and
interactive elements. This is to be achieved by uncovering critical incidents
or instances of miscommunication which might be related to cultural background.
The tests will be followed by focus group discussions to enrich and possibly
clarify the data obtained from the tests.
Ideally, this kind of empirical study should be conducted over several
years and in several countries. If time and money permit, the current research
will be extended to include the training approach practiced in the training
centre of the company's German partner for comparative purposes.
4 Intercultural Factors
4.1 Intercultural Factors in the Field of Usability
Issues such as internationalization and localization are mostly dealt
with in the literature on human computer interaction (HCI) and software
engineering. More recently, efforts have been made to apply the methods
and guidelines developed in these fields to the usability of Web sites
(see, for example [Alexander and Tate 1999, Spyridakis
2000]). However, very little research has been done on international
and/or intercultural aspects concerning Web-based training modules (see,
for example [Chase et al 2002 and Kamentz and Womser-Hacker
Overall, we can observe an increasing awareness of the fact that developing
truly effective interfaces for an international audience requires more
than just translating text, but involves a cultural transfer (see, for
example [del Galdo and Nielsen 1996; Luong,
Lok, Lok and Driscoll 1995; Russo and Boor 1993]).
The above-mentioned authors tend to agree that interface elements affected
by culture, such as images, icons or symbols, must be adjusted for cultural
differences. The same applies to color, which can influence a user's expectations
about navigation, links and content, and the interpretation of which varies
between cultures. Examples frequently mentioned: Whereas in Europe and
the United States the color red represents danger, in China it stands for
happiness. Similarly, whereas the color green has positive connotations
for users in most of Western Europe, the United States and the Middle East,
French users might associate it with criminality.
Furthermore, authors agree that number, date and time formats have to
be converted and text flow and layout designed around locale-specific user
modules. There is a consensus that social norms determine the acceptability
of images, symbols or icons in a culture, and that therefore great care
must be taken when using images, symbols or icons depicting religious symbols
(e.g. crosses, crescents, stars), the human body, women and hand gestures.
Functionality, too, can be affected by cultural factors. Certain features,
e.g. for encouraging interaction, might be taken for granted in one society,
but be met with disapproval in another. One example cited in the literature
refers to a poetry teaching tool developed for use in France. It was designed
in such a way to accept the teacher's comments but not those of students.
This was acceptable in France, but not well received in Scandinavia, where
students are encouraged to contribute and interact with teachers [Russo
and Boor 1993].
Whereas many software products and international Web sites are translated
into various languages and their design customized to address the needs
of users in other countries and language communities, catering for a culturally
heterogeneous user group as is the case with this application requires
a different approach. Rather than selecting the user groups on the basis
of cultural background and customizing the eLearning system to suit their
specific needs, the design has to integrate cultural diversity and aim
for cultural neutrality, respectively.
A similar case has been described in a study conducted by Bourges-Waldegg
and Scrivener. Like the trainees of the French project partner, their users
had a good command of English, but nevertheless misunderstandings occurred
when users were asked to evaluate two English Web sites aimed at an international
audience [Bourges-Waldegg and Scrivener 2000]. As
already mentioned, most misunderstandings could be attributed to the lack
of shared context, which made it difficult to grasp the meaning of certain
icons or expressions. In their study the authors therefore emphasized the
importance of using unambiguous, concise as well as simplified English
rather than the type of idiomatic, jargon-rich language usually cherished
by Web site designers.
In this case and in contrast to the user samples described by Bourges-Waldegg
and Scrivener, the future users of the WBT modules share the same professional
context. Regardless of their country of origin or cultural background,
they all have a great deal of experience of either helicopter flying or
maintenance. It is therefore to be expected that the meaning of terms,
symbols and images which relate to their professional context will not
The areas where problems can arise and where cultural factors will have
an impact on the usability and thus acceptance of the application are those
in which interaction occurs, e.g. in online exams or quizzes aimed at testing
students' progress, including the way in which results are communicated.
Problems can also arise with regard to community features, e.g. in discussion
fora used for exchange between trainer and students as well as among students.
Both interactive and community features are highly relevant in an eLearning
4.2 Intercultural Issues in Learning and Teaching
Most authors regard cross-cultural learning situations as fundamentally
problematic. Geert Hofstede, one of the most prolific and most frequently
cited authors in the field of intercultural studies, is also one of the
few authors in this field to have paid particular attention to cultural
differences in teaching and learning [Hofstede 1986].
In his article "Cultural Differences in Teaching and Learning"
he draws on three sources of information:
- his earlier research on differences in work-related values in over
50 countries which led to his famous 4-Dimension Model of cultural differences,
- his and others' personal experiences in teaching and learning in different
cross-cultural situations and
- his experiences as a parent of school-age children attending local
His investigations and experiences lead him to identify four main problem
- differences in the social positions of teachers and students
- differences in the relevance of the training content,
- differences in cognitive ability profiles between the populations from
which teacher and student are drawn and
- differences in expected patterns of teacher-student interaction
Differences in student-teacher interaction are listed with reference
to the four dimensions of Individualism versus Collectivism, large versus
small Power Distance, strong versus weak Uncertainty Avoidance, and Masculinity
In the current investigation, "problem areas" 1 and 4 are
relevant and as far as Web-based training is concerned, it is the last
"problem area", i.e. differences in mutual role expectations
between teacher and student, that plays a particularly important role.
It addresses the training process and thus issues of interaction rather
than the content of training, which - given the shared professional background
of the trainees - should prove to be relatively unproblematic.
In one of the few papers dealing with intercultural factors in online
training Chase and his co-authors write about "Intercultural Challenges
in Networked Learning" [Chase et al 2002] and describe phase one of
a longitudinal, large-scale analysis of intercultural communications factors
in the ICT elements of international, networked learning courses. The authors
identify differing communication patterns and instances of miscommunication
in online exchanges between culturally diverse learners and online facilitators.
Subsequently, using ethnographic methods and informal discourse analysis
they proceed to cluster these instances and try to develop taxonomies of
intercultural communication problems. This has resulted in a list of themes
such as online culture, format and participation, face-to-face versus online
issues, identity creating, technical issues, participant expectations,
academic discourse versus 'stories' and time.
Another recent publication worth mentioning is by [Kamentz
and Womser-Hacker 2003] which deals with the impact of culture on the
development and graphical design of eLearning systems. The authors compare
existing German and American WBT courses in terms of usability, presentation
of content and didactic approach and also examine cultural aspects of computer
usage. They conclude that given the considerable differences that have
emerged in the course of this study, user-oriented design of interactive
learning environments definitely requires cultural adaptation and that
the conclusions of their study should contribute to defining culture-specific
requirements for the design of WBT courses.
The authors of both papers believe that the design of teaching aids
such as WBT modules as well as learning processes in different cultural
contexts can be described and analyzed using the theoretical work done
by Hofstede and other authors in the field of intercultural studies such
as Galtung or Clyne.
The following chapter examines whether this approach is adequate for
the present research.
5 Theoretical Framework
Because of its interdisciplinary nature, this study requires a theoretical
framework that can supply concepts and models both for human-computer-interaction
as well as learning and teaching approaches in a virtual environment. At
the same time, this framework has to be able to accommodate human, social
and (inter-)cultural factors, cope with computer-mediated collaboration
processes and take into account the environment or context in which activities
such as learning and teaching occur.
After a very brief outline of some of the major approaches in HCI and
educational research - especially with regard to cultural factors - this
paper will go on to discuss their shortcomings and consider alternatives
such as activity theory.
5.1 Theoretical Models in Human-Computer-Interaction and the Role of
Different psychological theories in the HCI realm have been applied
to usability engineering and testing. Not all of them take into account
cultural factors: they hardly figure in Cognitive Ergonomics or Human Factors
Engineering, for instance, which appears to be the predominant method in
HCI at the moment. This is why more recent approaches such as Situated
Action and Activity Theory seem more suited to the present research because
they incorporate the influence and importance of context and thus of social
and cultural factors.
Cognitive ergonomics with its focus on the computer-user or computer-programmer
dyad has tended to neglect the context and the environment in which human-computer-interaction
occurs and has largely ignored the real activities users are engaged in.
Its research methods have been based mostly upon experimental models borrowed
from the natural sciences and focus on measuring.
In contrast, the situated action approach draws on disciplines such
as anthropology and sociology and focuses on human activities in particular
situations and settings. [Suchman 1987], for example, states that every
course of action depends in essential ways upon its material and social
circumstances. The extent to which the user is embedded in a specific (cultural)
context and a framework of reference is therefore recognized. The situated
action approach has also been applied to computer-mediated work and computer-supported
collaborative work (CSCW), for example, by [Mantovani 1996]. Furthermore,
Mantovani expanded the approach to include not only the interpretation
of situations and the local interaction with the environment as in Suchman's
work, but also to regard the symbolic order or structure as an integral
part of the social context.
Although for many situated action represents a welcome corrective to
the dominant cognitive credo, it has been criticized for its lack of reference
to overall motives and objectives and for the fact that the approach does
not provide tools or models with which to describe them, especially if
they go beyond the immediate situation e.g. [Nardi 1996].
However, because of its strong empirical commitment, the situated action
approach can serve as the basis for the current empirical investigations
and guide the analysis when trying to come to grips with the often perplexing
flux of training activities.
5.2 Theoretical Models for Dealing with Cultural Factors in Learning
As already mentioned, the concept of cultural dimensions as propagated
by Hofstede and his followers is often used to analyze intercultural differences.
Much writing on issues of culture in the context of internationalization
or globalization, the educational field included, is actually permeated
by references to Geert Hofstede and his model of cultural dimensions such
as Individualism/Collectivism, Power Distance or Uncertainty Avoidance.
His findings are based on data collected in over 50 countries, mostly on
managerial values, but have also been applied to account for differences
in teaching and learning [Hofstede 1986].
Culture-specific differences in learning and teaching are also addressed
by [Galtung 1981] and [Clyne 1994].
The former distinguishes 4 approaches when comparing the structure, culture
and intellectual style prevailing in different societies: saxonic (British
Commonwealth, USA), teutonic (e.g. Germany, Eastern Europe, Russia), gallic
(e.g. France, Italy, Spain, Portugal, Latin America) and nipponic (Japan,
East Asian countries). The features of the different styles are analyzed
according to four dimensions, i.e. paradigm analysis, generation of hypotheses,
theory construction and peer review.
Clyne, in his analysis of student essays, has identified several categories
with regard to cultural discourse and scientific writing styles, namely
linearity vs. digressivity, focus on form vs. content and integration of
There is no doubt that Hofstede's work has a sound empirical base and
is rooted in practical experience. But his concept of culture as essence
and difference has limited explanatory value for this research since it
tends to be intrinsically linked to language, nationality and ethnicity,
notions which in the globalize or rather globalizing world of international
computer networks do not play the kind of role which was accorded to them
by anthropologists in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries. Even though
cultural orientation systems that are acquired early in life - Hofstede
calls them the "collective programming of the mind" - have a
strong influence on human beings, they are insufficient to account for
behaviour differences in learning situations, for instance, where factors
such as profession, status or corporate culture also play a major role.
Furthermore, when it comes to the actual design of products such as WBT
modules we also need a precise understanding of work objectives and work
Hofstede's dimensions and the categories proposed by Galtung and Clyne
can certainly provide useful signposts for observing student behaviour
in the classroom, but they are unlikely to prove adequate to account for
the complex web of interactions which characterizes these kinds of training
situations. Rather than promote awareness about the influence of cultural
factors in general, it seems important to identify cultural standards and/or
requirements that apply to a concrete application or product.
According to [Thomas 1996] cultural standards
can be identified by investigating so-called 'critical incidents' which
(may) occur in intercultural interaction. By studying such incidents, we
can identify cultural and mental models that the parties involved are usually
not aware of. Thanks to their strong empirical bias, cultural standards
are particularly useful for the study of specific spheres of action such
as WBT, for example. Even though Hofstede includes human actions (which
he calls "practices"), it is basically values and cognitive processes
which motivate behaviour in his approach.
[Ratner 1997] criticizes this focus on cognition
from a different perspective and puts forward his own approach based on
activity theory. According to this theory, culture consists not only of
shared semiotic or symbolic processes and social concepts but also of concrete
social institutions which are arranged in a division of labor and governed
by definite principles of behaviour, forms of control and power, allocation
of opportunities, rewards and punishments.
5.3 Activity Theory as an Integrative Framework
As already pointed out, activity theory with its integrative nature
and goal-based structure appears to be a more promising conceptual approach
for dealing with both intercultural issues in usability and online training.
From it we can derive models and concepts for analyzing social and cultural
structures and processes in usability engineering as well as computer-mediated
learning and teaching. It offers us a unified framework for looking at
using computers as tools to achieve certain goals and for exploring issues
connected with these activities. It also helps to overcome the shortcomings
of the information processing models of cognitive science, which have dominated
in HCI research.
Publications in the field of human-computer interaction rarely deal
with cultural differences beyond interface design. Authors, on the whole,
make little effort to define the concept of culture or to establish links
between existing concepts in cultural psychology with HCI theories. One
of the few authors to actually do so is [Hoft 1995],
who refers to Hofstede and other "interculturalists" and uses
their models and concepts as tools for optimizing internationalization.
However, given the shortcomings of cultural dimensions cited above, the
cultural standards approach suggested by [Thomas 1996]
appears more useful to identify the influence of cultural factors in a
virtual learning environment.
Even the more empirically grounded situated action approach, which takes
into account cultural and contextual factors has been found to be inadequate
because it offers a conceptual framework which is on the one hand too global
to provide guidance to applied studies, and on the other hand has been
criticized for being too concerned with microscopic and detailed analysis
resulting in the investigation of "trivial" matters [Cuff,
Sharrock & Francis 1992].
Overall, practical case studies still tend to prevail in the HCI field
and the lack of theoretical foundation endangers a constructive tackling
of problems. This is why more recent HCI researchers such as [Ratner
1997] or [Honold 2000], who has written on intercultural
usability engineering, have turned to activity theory as an alternative
framework in HCI research.
Activity theory is a set of basic principles that constitute a general
conceptual system rather than a highly predictive theory and, being a dynamic
and systemic approach, it can cope with a rapidly changing environment.
People are seen as embedded in a socio-cultural context with which they
actively interact. The complex interaction of individuals with their environment
is called activity and is regarded theoretically as the fundamental unit
Activity theory traces its roots back to psychological perspectives
in the Soviet Union and now supports studies in developmental psychology
and educational technology around the world. It also provides a broad framework
for describing the structure, development and context of computer-supported
activities and a foundation on which HCI researchers might base common
discourse and from which they can derive tools for design and evaluation
(see [Kaptelinin and Nardi 1997]).
Tool mediation is one of the most important concepts of activity theory.
Tools or artifacts refer to culturally produced means for changing the
environment and achieving goals. Humans are seen as continually changing
tools or artifacts or creating new ones. From an activity theory perspective,
computer technologies and the Internet, for example, are considered tools.
The value of activity theory for contextual studies of HCI has been
convincingly described, for example in Nardi's book "Context and Consciousness"
[Nardi 1996]. According to Nardi the greatest contribution
of activity theory might lie in its ability to provide disparate approaches
to HCI with a common vocabulary for emergent issues in the study of technology
In this book we also find examples of practical applications of activity
theory. [Bellamy 1996], for example, discusses the
development of educational software and delineates principles for designing
educational environments. [Gould, Verenikina & Hasan
2000] have applied activity theory to the design of interactive Web-based
information systems. Gould and his co-authors attribute its appeal to its
broad view of the human psyche and behaviour and its well-structured categories
5.4 Methodological Implications
Various checklists have been suggested for presenting the theoretical
structure of activities in an operational form and moving from theory to
practice. Kaptelinin and [Nardi 1997] distinguish
between checklists for design and checklists for evaluation. They cover
the main basic principles of activity theory, namely:
- the activity hierarchy, which includes identifying the goals of actions,
- object orientedness - activities are seen as directed towards an object,
- internalisation/externalisation - activities include both internal
(mental) and external components which can transform into each other, and
- mediation and development.
The last principle refers to the mediation carried out by a tool, which
can be both material in nature (e.g. a computer) and mental (e.g. a tool
for thinking). It includes an analysis of the history of the relationship
between subject and object, which in turn can help to reveal the main factors
influencing the transformation process or development.
Gould and his co-authors have adapted these checklists to usability
requirements, which is why their version seems more relevant for this study.
They talk of "environment" (instead of object orientedness) or
"structure and dynamics of interaction" (instead of internalisation/externalisation).
Their example illustrates that activity theory is basically a very pragmatic
approach and leaves ample room for adaptation to specific requirements
and fields of application. It is hoped that the checklist approach will
also prove a feasible tool in the design of the Web-based training module.
As far as the methodology for identifying and analyzing the cultural
embeddedness of man-computer interaction is concerned, the following requirements
can be deduced from the studies mentioned so far:
- Adequate duration of study
- Methodological mix.
The current research intends to fulfill these requirements even though
the duration of study will to some extent be determined by project requirements.
6 Preliminary Findings
6.1 General Observations
The interviews carried out so far have shown that instructors are very
aware of cultural differences and on the whole take a positive attitude
to cultural differences, seeing them as a source of enrichment rather than
as barriers to be overcome. In the more in-depth interviews, in particular,
it became clear that their constant exposure to people of different cultural
origin has led to a very sophisticated and differentiated view. Whilst
on the one hand they recognize certain cultural patterns, habits or attitudes,
they also stress that one should be wary of stereotyping.
Respect for each other is seen as the key to a good climate in the classroom
and as conducive to efficient training. This can range from familiarizing
themselves with the history and culture of the trainees' countries of origin
to providing halal food for Muslim clients. Interpreter(s) at times contribute
to the understanding of cultural attitudes or behaviour patterns and some
instructors quite consciously "use" interpreters as a source
of cultural knowledge. They can also help them distinguish between behaviour
which is rooted in cultural background and the idiosyncrasies of an individual
6.2 Intercultural Issues in Teaching and Learning
A first investigation of student behaviour on-site showed that two main
approaches could be discerned:
- Trainees, who frequently ask questions, engage in dialogue with the
instructor and other students and do not hesitate to pass comment.
- Trainees who tend to keep quiet and rarely interact with the instructor
or other students and hesitate to be openly critical. They tend to assimilate
new topics/know-how through systematic, step-by-step individual learning.
Although at first the behavioral patterns observed in the classroom
seem to correlate broadly with the cultural dimensions proposed by Hofstede,
the professional background of the trainees seems to have similar explanatory
value. Pilots, for example, tend to exhibit the first behaviour pattern
more frequently, regardless of their country origin. Furthermore, the behavioral
differences often do not coincide with the culture-specific patterns one
would expect from trainees from the countries and/or cultures examined
by Hofstede, Galtung or Clyne. Their categories prove too broad to accommodate
the differences which could be observed between trainees from different
Asian countries, for example, Korea, Vietnam or Hong Kong.
In the classroom, the instructors adapt to the different expectations
and behaviour patterns by adapting their didactic methods. In the first
case, an interactive, problem- and task-oriented approach is called for
and the instructors tend to act more as coaches, recognizing the students
as peers and experts. In the second case, they make an effort - through
close observation of trainees' non-verbal behaviour - to gauge the degree
of comprehension and respond accordingly, e.g. by resorting to a more hands-on,
"touch & feel" approach.
Any communication problems so far observed in the classroom were dealt
with successfully by the instructors. In an eLearning environment, however,
different expectations and behaviour patterns of trainees cannot be picked
up on and handled by an experienced instructor who is able to adapt his
didactic approach. Instructors also play an important role in compensating
for certain lacunae or deficiencies in the translation and/or presentation
of the training materials. Although all manuals undergo a continuous and
complex revision process, discrepancies between different language versions
as well as terminological inconsistencies can occur.
This is why in an eLearning environment absolute accuracy and clarity
of language are called for when it comes to presenting and transmitting
the information contained in the WBT modules. Of course, accuracy is also
particularly important for security reasons, since ambiguous formulations
can lead to risks that are unacceptable in this industry.
6.3 Emerging Themes
Based on the research conducted so far, and including the first expert
reviews, certain themes with intercultural implications appear to be relevant
for the present study. The following list is rather tentative and far from
final or exhaustive, but will provide orientation for the end-user tests.
Cultural differences may be discerned in:
Attitudes towards authority
These are closely associated with Hofstede's dimension of Power Distance
and may have an impact on the expectations participants might have of the
role of online moderators or facilitators, e.g. with regard to the degree
of guidance through the course or to resolving technical problems. But
as already noted, professional background also seems to be very influential.
Intellectual style or discourse
Different learning and teaching traditions may influence whether trainees
expect a formal, sober style focused on their professional role, or if
they feel more at ease with an informal and personal style. Some trainees
prefer to have information presented to them by way of stories, videos
or animations or find long continuous paragraphs difficult to read, whereas
others are happy with solid blocks of text. Galtung's and Clyne's categories
might help cast light on these issues, as might the comparative study conducted
by [Kamentz and Womser-Hacker 2003].
Attitudes toward time
Most people have explicit and implicit assumptions about 'time' and
what constitutes punctuality. Certain cultures show little tolerance to
delay and expect immediate responses, e.g. with regard to communicating
The following themes will probably play a role when evaluating the interactive
and community features of the eLearning environment:
Group vs. individual focus
In some cultures students are used to learning in a group environment
which is why, for example, it might be not advisable to use sound to guide
users through the program. Apart from the disturbance this might cause,
consideration has to be given to not creating situations in which a trainee
might "lose face", i.e. by using sound to indicate if an answer
was right or wrong.
High vs. low context communication patterns
Even though trainees share the same professional background, requirements
for contextual information might become relevant in a collaborative environment.
Therefore, online tutors have to make sure that they are as explicit as
possible when communicating with their trainees, especially when giving
instructions about problem solving or when devising scenarios.
A separate issue is the fact that online culture is far from value-free
It is rooted in the history of the Internet and therefore strongly influenced
by the values of the developers. It includes rules of formality/informality,
flexibility, interaction style (incl. greetings/farewells, use of apology)
and expectations of response speed.
Of course, individual comfort or discomfort both with the technology
involved and with the 'anonymity' of online discourse also depends on factors
such as educational level, status, gender or age. Critical incidents in
an online environment therefore can also result from role differences,
seniority/experience, perceptions of academic ability, professional status
and tolerance for criticism and debate. It may also limit the ways in which
participants can utilize face-saving strategies.
6.4 Final Remarks
When conducting the end-user tests, special attention will be given
to these aspects to see whether they can be corroborated by critical incidents
and if these can be attributed to cultural factors rather than to other
variables such as age or professional background.
Since the project partners assume that cultural adaptation will mainly
be necessary at the level of interaction and community features, these
will be implemented separately on the learning management system. This
will allow the company to delegate adaptation of those features to affiliated
training centers in other countries whilst leaving the training modules
unchanged. The results of the end-user tests are expected to yield recommendations
with regard to how to adapt to culture-specific requirements.
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