Traditional Electromechanical Motor Starters.
Traditional Electromechanical Starters.
A.C. Induction motors are traditionally started and
stopped by applying and removing the A.C. supply. In some cases, a full
voltage start is acceptable, but in many situations, the start current
must be reduced, and so a reduced voltage starter is employed.
i) Direct On Line
The simplest form of motor starter for the induction
motor is the Direct On Line starter. The DOL starter
comprises a switch and an overload protection relay.
switch may be a manually operated load break switch or circuit breaker,
but more commonly it would be an electromagnetic contactor which can be
opened by the thermal overload relay under fault conditions.
Typically, the contactor will be controlled by separate start and stop buttons,
and an auxiliary contact on the contactor is used, across the start button,
as a hold in contact. i.e. the contactor is electrically latched closed
while the motor is operating.
To start, the contactor is closed, applying full line voltage to the motor
windings. The motor will draw a very high inrush current for a very short
time, to establish the magnetic field in the iron, and then the current
will be limited to the Locked Rotor Current of the
motor. The motor will develop Locked Rotor Torque
and begin to accelerate towards full speed. As the motor accelerates,
the current will begin to drop, but will not drop significantly until
the motor is at a high speed, typically about 85% of synchronous speed.
The actual starting current curve is a function of the motor design, and
the terminal voltage, and is totally independent of the motor load. The
motor load will affect the time taken for the motor to accelerate to full
speed and therefore the duration of the high starting current, but not
the magnitude of the starting current.
Provided the torque developed by the motor exceeds the load torque at
all speeds during the start cycle, the motor will reach full speed. If
the torque delivered by the motor is less than the torque of the load
at any speed during the start cycle, the motor will cease accelerating.
If the starting torque with a DOL starter is insufficient for the load,
the motor must be replaced with a motor which can develop a higher starting
torque. The acceleration torque is the torque developed by the motor minus
the load torque, and will change as the motor accelerates due to the motor
speed torque curve and the load speed torque curve. The start time is
dependant on the acceleration torque and the load inertia.
DOL starting results in maximum start current and maximum start torque.
This may cause an electrical problem with the supply, or it may cause
a mechanical problem with the driven load.
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ii) Primary Resistance.
The Primary Resistance starter will have one or more
sets of resistors which, during start, are connected in series with the
supply to the motor. The series resistors limit the starting current drawn
by the motor, and thus reduce the starting torque of the motor.
the motor is up to full speed (or after a period of time) the resistors
are bridged by a contactor to apply full voltage to the motor. If the
full details of the motor starting characteristics are known, and the
starting characteristics of the load are also known, it is practical to
determine the correct value of the resistors to provide enough start torque
for the load while minimising the starting current. A primary resistance
starter correctly designed and constructed, will cause the motor to accelerate
the load to almost full speed with the resistors in circuit before they
are bridged out. In this case, the transition to full voltage only occurs
once the impedance of the motor has risen, and the resulting current is
much less than the LRC of the motor. In a poorly designed system, the
transition to full voltage will occur at less than 80% full speed, and
the current will then step up to almost DOL current, resulting in little
gain from the use of the primary resistance starter other than the increased
cost of the starter. (advantageous to the starter supplier, not to the
end user.) Improved starting characteristics with some loads can be achieved
by the use of several stages of resistance and bridging out increasing
amounts of resistance as the motor accelerates.
With the primary resistance starter, it is not easy to alter the resistance
and hence the starting characteristics once the starter is built. Therefore,
it is important that the correct resistors are selected in the first place.
The primary resistance starter reduces the voltage applied to the motor
terminals while passing the full starting current to the motor. Consequently,
there is a very high power dissipation in the resistors, resulting in
the requirement for very high power rated resistors. Typically, the resistors
will dissipate as much as 150% - 200% the power rating of the motor for
the duration of the start.
The resistors may be either metallic resistors, or liquid resistors. Metallic
resistors have a positive temperature coefficient and as a result, as
they heat up, their resistance increases. Liquid resistors, such as saline
solution, have a negative temperature coefficient and so consequently,
as they heat up, their resistance reduces. The heat build up in the resistors
during start, and their temperature dependant resistance characteristics,
make it essential the resistors are allowed to fully cool between starts.
This restricts the starting frequency and the minimum time between the
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iii) Primary Reactance.
A Primary reactance starter is similar to a primary
resistance starter except that the resistors are replaced by a three phase
reactor to limit the starting current. The operation of the primary reactance
starter is essentially the same as that of the primary resistance starter,
but the use of a three phase reactor in place of the resistors offers
the advantage of reduced heat loss and greater ease of start current setting
due to the ability to change taps on the reactor.
iv) Auto transformer.
An Auto transformer starter uses an auto transformer
to reduce the voltage applied to a motor during start. The auto transformer
may have a number of output taps and be set-up to provide a single stage
starter, or a multistage starter. Typically, the auto transformer would
have taps at 50%, 65% and 80% voltage, enabling the motor to be started
at one or more of these settings.
There are two ways of connecting an auto transformer starter, the most
obvious way is to apply full voltage to the transformer via a contactor,
and connect the motor to the tap by means of a contactor. When the motor
has accelerated to full speed, or has run out of acceleration torque,
the tap contactor opens, disconnecting the motor from the transformer
and another contactor closes connecting the motor to the supply. The transformer
can now be disconnected from the supply. This format is known as an open
transition starter and is less than ideal due to the fact that the motor
is disconnected for a short period of time during the start period. While
the motor is connected and accelerating, there is a rotating magnetic
field in the stator which causes flux in the rotor and thus a rotor current
to flow. At the instant the motor is disconnected, there is a magnetic
field in the rotor which is spinning with-in the stator winding. The motor
acts as a generator until the rotor field decays. The voltage generated
by the motor is not synchronised to the supply, and so on reconnection
to the supply, the voltage across the contactor at closure can be as much
as twice the supply voltage resulting in a very high current and torque
transient. This open transition switching is often known as the auto-reclose
effect as it yields similar characteristics to opening and closing a breaker
on a supply to one or more motors. The consequences of open transition
switching can be as bad as broken shafts and stripped gears.
By a rearrangement of the power circuit, it is possible, at no extra cost,
to build a closed transition starter and thereby eliminate the current
and torque transients. The closed transition auto transformer starter
is known as the Korndorffer starter. The open transition switching is
achieved by reconnecting the tap contactor between the transformer and
motor, to the star connection of the transformer, hard wiring the motor
to the tap, and altering the sequence of contactor control. To start the
machine, the main contactor and the star contactors are closed applying
reduced voltage to the motor. When the motor has reached full speed, (or
run out of acceleration torque) the star contactor is opened effectively
converting the auto transformer starter into a primary reactance starter.
Next the primary reactance is bridged by a contactor applying full voltage
to the motor. At no time does the motor become disconnected from the supply.
The transformer is generally only intermittent rated for the starting
duty, and so the frequency and duration of the starts is limited. With
a transformer starter, it is relatively easy to change taps and thereby
increase the starting voltage if a higher torque is required. The auto
transformer starter is a constant voltage starter, so the torque is reduced
by the voltage reduction squared over the entire speed range, unlike the
primary resistance or primary reactance starters which are constant impedance
starters and where the start voltage is dependant on the ratio of the
motor impedance to the motor plus starter impedance. As the motor accelerates,
it's impedance rises and consequently, the terminal voltage of the motor
also rises, giving a small torque increase at higher speeds.
Unlike the primary resistance and primary reactance starter, the current
flowing into the motor is different from that flowing from the supply.
The supply current flows into the primary circuit of a transformer, and
the secondary current is applied to the motor. The transformer reduces
the primary current by the same ratio as the voltage reduction. If the
motor is connected to the 50% tap of the transformer, the voltage across
the motor terminals will be 50%. Assuming an LRC of 600%, there will be
300% current flowing into the motor. If 300% current flows into the motor,
then the current into the transformer will be 150%. This would suggest
that the lowest starting current will be achieved by the use of an auto
transformer starter. In most instances, the load will require an increasing
torque as it accelerates, and so often a higher tap must be selected in
order to accelerate the load to full speed before the step to full voltage
occurs. If a multistage transformer starter is employed, then the primary
current will certainly be lower than other forms of induction motor starter.
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v) Star Delta.
The Star Delta starter can only be used with a motor
which is rated for connection in delta operation at the required line
voltage, and has both ends each of the three windings available individually.
At Start, the line voltage is applied to one end of each of the three
windings, with the other end bridged together, effectively connecting
the windings in a star connection. Under this connection, the voltage
across each winding is 1/(rt 3) of line voltage and so the current flowing
in each winding is also reduced by this amount. The resultant current
flowing from the supply is reduced by a factor of 1/3 as is the torque.
i.e. A motor which exhibits a LRC of 600% and an LRT of 180% will exhibit
characteristics of: LRCstar of 200% and LRTstar
of 60%. In some cases, this may be enough to get the motor up to full
speed, but most, as this is a constant voltage starter, the transition
to full voltage will occur at part speed resulting in a virtual DOL type
start. To step to full voltage, the star connection is opened, effectively open circuiting
the motor, and the ends of the windings are then connected to the three
phase supply in a fashion to create a delta connection. This type of starter
is an open transition starter and so the switch to delta is accompanied by a very high torque and current transient.
In most situations, there would be less damage to the equipment and less
interference to the
supply if a DOL starter was employed.
The star delta is not easily converted to a closed transition starter,
and even the closed transition (Wanchop) star delta starter still has
the problem that the start voltage can not be altered. If there is insufficient
torque available in star, then it will go DOL. The star delta starter
does get around the regulations in some countries where there is a requirement
for a reduced voltage starter, but in reality, in many situations results
in more severe transients than DOL. The main benefits of the star delta
starter are that it puts more money in the pockets of the switchgear supplier,
and it is politically correct.
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vi) Slip Ring Motors.
The Slip Ring motor is essentially similar to the standard
cage induction motor except that the winding on the rotor has far more
turns and instead of being short circuited, is brought out to a set of
slip rings for external connection.
The operation of the slip ring motor is the same as that of the standard
cage induction motor in that torque is generated by the interaction of
the stator field and the rotor field. The rotor field being generated
by current flowing in the rotor which is caused by the slip between the
rotor and the stator field. The torque speed curve and the current speed
curve can be altered by the rotor winding termination. A very high value
of resistance on the rotor termination will give a very low locked rotor
current, and a low locked rotor torque. Reducing the termination resistance,
will increase both the locked rotor current and the locked rotor torque
up to the point where maximum torque is available under locked rotor conditions.
Further reduction of termination resistance will reduce the locked rotor
torque by shifting the maximum (Pull Up) from zero speed towards synchronous
speed. A short circuit across the rotor will result in the maximum torque
occurring a t a very low slip, and a locked rotor current as high as 1400%
for a locked rotor torque of as low as 50%. It is imperative that there
must be resistance in the rotor circuit of a slip ring motor during start
if any starting torque is to be developed at a realistic starting current.
Typically, the slip ring motor is started by a multistage starter, developing
as high as 300% torque at 250% current. By stepping through lower resistor
values as the motor accelerates, the maximum torque is kept in step with
the actual rotor speed and thus the maximum acceleration of a very difficult
load can be achieved in minimum time and with maximum efficiency.
The slip ring starter comprises an isolation contactor for the stator
circuit, the stator being effectively DOL controlled, and a series of
rotor resistors and contactors controlled by a sequencer. The resistors
must be sized to suit the driven load. The total power dissipated in the
resistors will be at least equal to the kinetic energy of the driven load
at full speed.
Slip ring motors typically have an open circuit rotor voltage (or frame
voltage) of between 400 volts and 500 volts to keep the current to a manageable
The major disadvantage of the slip ring motor is that the ring gear suffers
wear and requires regular maintenance, as does the starter, particularly
if an electromechanical sequencer is used.