|Publication number||US7496664 B2|
|Application number||US 11/626,484|
|Publication date||24 Feb 2009|
|Filing date||24 Jan 2007|
|Priority date||1 Oct 2001|
|Also published as||DE60237193D1, EP1368919A1, EP1368919A4, EP1368919B1, EP2211270A2, EP2211270A3, EP2211270B1, US7194535, US20030088664, US20070121516, WO2003030421A1|
|Publication number||11626484, 626484, US 7496664 B2, US 7496664B2, US-B2-7496664, US7496664 B2, US7496664B2|
|Inventors||Clifford L. Hannel, Douglas E. Schafer, Errol Ginsberg, Gerald R. Pepper|
|Export Citation||BiBTeX, EndNote, RefMan|
|Patent Citations (28), Non-Patent Citations (3), Referenced by (6), Classifications (25), Legal Events (4)|
|External Links: USPTO, USPTO Assignment, Espacenet|
This patent is a continuation of U.S. application Ser. No. 09/968,432, filed Oct. 1, 2001, entitled “METHODS AND SYSTEMS FOR TESTING STATEFUL NETWORK COMMUNICATIONS DEVICES”.
A portion of the disclosure of this patent document contains material which is subject to copyright protection. This patent document may show and/or describe matter which is or may become trade dress of the owner. The copyright and trade dress owner has no objection to the facsimile reproduction by anyone of the patent disclosure as it appears in the Patent and Trademark Office patent files or records, but otherwise reserves all copyright and trade dress rights whatsoever.
The present invention relates to methods and systems for testing network communications devices. More particularly, the present invention relates to methods and systems for testing stateful network communications devices.
2. Description of the Related Art
Testing high capacity, IP-based intelligent networks requires the origination of Internet-scale volumes of simulated user traffic in laboratory environments. The current generation of high-speed network performance testing equipment is based on either:
As the density, speed and intelligent traffic management capabilities of network devices increase, traditional high-volume traffic generation solutions are less able to simulate real-world scenarios.
In order to test a stateless device, simulated traffic only needs to look like “real” traffic on a packet-by-packet basis. There does not need to be a complex relationship between the packets, so the transmitting device does not need to maintain any state or have any dynamic behaviors. For this reason, the current generation of high performance traffic generators do not require a full TCP/IP stack for performance testing. Specialized hardware is used to generate wirespeed packets that are varied algorithmically by overlaying variable length incrementing or random patterns over a “base packet” without any consideration of received packets. These conventional stateless test devices are commonly referred to as packet blasters.
True TCP sessions contain a feedback mechanism. For example, a TCP receiver sends acknowledgement packets to a TCP sender that advertise a window size to the TCP sender that inform the TCP sender the size of the receiver's receive buffer. The sender uses the advertised window size to control the flow of packets sent to the receiver. This mechanism causes the flow of incoming traffic to vary as a function of receiver performance. For instance, as a TCP receiver becomes overloaded, the rate of removing and processing packets from its TCP receive buffer decreases. As a result, the window size advertised to the sender decreases, and the TCP sender slows the flow of packets sent to the receiver. In addition, the mechanism can generate redundant data. For example, if a TCP receiver receives an out-of-sequence packet, the receiver will send a duplicate acknowledgement to the sender indicating that an out of sequence packet was received. Because this feedback mechanism exists on every TCP connection, overall TCP session throughput becomes the dominant performance metric.
Unlike traditional switches and routers, server load-balancing (SLB) devices may maintain state. In the most basic implementations, this takes the form of “persistent sessions” where all packets from a specific user (source IP address) are routed to the same server (destination IP address). In order to accomplish this, the SLB may maintain a table of established client/server connections and look up the server to which a packet should be routed based on the client address.
The next generation of SLB devices is much more sophisticated. They may make routing decisions based on a combination of data from the IP, TCP and HTTP header (URL, Cookie) and may even actively participate in a client/server session by proxying and aggregating multiple client connections into a pool of pre-existing server connections. Since the SLB may have a full TCP/IP stack, it becomes much more difficult to test the device with stateless, algorithmically generated traffic. The performance of the SLB is sensitive to many more characteristics of the TCP session. Table 1 shown below summarizes the information in a received packet processed by various IP-based communications devices.
Routing Device Header Awareness
TCP src/dst port
TCP Sequence #
In Table 1, it can be seen that switches and routers only process Ethernet and IP headers, respectively. Traditional server load balancers process the IP source and destination address fields and TCP source and destination port fields. Next generation server load balancers process every header from the Ethernet header through application-level headers. As a result, these next generation devices cannot be tested using traditional stateless packet blasters.
Today's load balancing switches generally handle tens of thousands of session establishments per second with fewer than 100,000 concurrent sessions established. Moore's Law is adhered to not only in general purpose computing platforms but in network devices as well: the new generation of load balancers will handle hundreds of thousands of sessions per second with 1,000,000 or more concurrent sessions established.
While stateless hardware-based solutions cost a fraction as much as fully stateful software-based solutions for high packet rates, stateless solutions do not provide realistic enough traffic to accurately measure the performance of stateful network communications devices, such as new generation SLBs. In fact, SLB devices that proxy connections with nearly a full TCP stack will drop simulated connections attempted by such a device. At the other extreme, software-based full stack implementations are prohibitively expensive to acquire and difficult to maintain and operate for high rates and/or volumes of connections. For example, software-based full TCP stack implementations require multiple may require multiple machines with multiple processors and network interfaces to achieve the number of TCP sessions required to test a stateful network communications device, such as a server load balancer. Accordingly, there exists a long-felt need for economical methods and systems for testing stateful network communications devices capable of simulating a realistic mix of network traffic.
The present invention includes methods and systems for testing stateful network communications devices. Stateful network communications devices that may be tested by embodiments of the present invention include any type of device that maintains state, such stateful servers, server load balancers, firewalls, secure sockets layer (SSL) accelerators, etc. The methods and systems according to the present invention are capable of simulating a realistic mix of traffic without requiring all of the sessions or connections used in a test to be stateful. According to one exemplary method, a number of simulated stateless connections are established with a device under test. Stateful TCP/IP connections are also established with the device under test. Packets are sent to the device under test over the stateful and stateless connections. Performance and behavior measurements are taken on the stateful connections. These performance measurements are used to modify the behavior of the stateless connections in order to simulate a realistic mix of network traffic. Because the present invention does not require all of the connections to be stateful, the amount of hardware required to test a stateful network communications device is reduced.
Accordingly, it is an object of the present invention to provide improved methods and systems for testing a stateful network communications device.
It is another object of the invention to provide methods and systems for testing a stateful network communications device that use both stateful and simulated stateless connections.
It is yet another object of the present invention to provide a system for testing a stateful network communications device using a reduced amount of hardware over conventional systems.
Some of the objects of the invention having been stated hereinabove, other objects will become evident as the description proceeds when taken in connection with the accompanying drawings as best described hereinbelow.
A description of preferred embodiments of the invention will now proceed with reference to the accompanying drawings.
The operation of TCP/IP stacks 108 can be contrasted with that of programmable stateless packet processors 110. Programmable stateless packet processors 110 simulate TCP/IP communications in a stateless manner. By “stateless,” it is meant that programmable stateless packet processors 110 make response decisions based only on information contained in an inbound packet. Programmable stateless packet processors 110 preferably do not maintain any state about a connection from one packet to the next. For example, when programmable stateless processors 110 receive a SYN packet, processors 110 formulate and send a SYN plus ACK. Programmable stateless packet processors 110 preferably do not implement of the stateful procedures implemented by TCP/IP stacks 108. For example, programmable stateless packet processors 110 may not implement flow control or retransmissions, both of which require complex code and processing resources. Because programmable stateless packet processors 110 make decisions based on information in inbound packets, programmable stateless packet processors 110 are not required to maintain connection tables of open TCP sessions. The lack of connection tables greatly reduces the processing and memory required for each simulated connection over that of a full TCP/IP session or connection. As a result, TCP/IP test devices 102 and 104 can simulate more TCP/IP sessions with a reduced amount of hardware over conventional full-stack test devices while still causing the DUT to add or reference information in its own state table.
The behavior of programmable stateless packet processors 110 is preferably programmable or controllable by TCP amplification (AMP) controllers 112. TCP AMP controllers 112 receive performance metrics regarding stateful TCP connections maintained by TCP/IP stacks 108 and use this information to modify the behavior of the simulated stateless TCP connections. Performance metrics may be obtained directly from TCP/IP stacks 108 or from an external measurement device 114, such as a packet sniffer. Exemplary performance measurements that may be used include retransmission rate, fragmentation, packet sizes, drop/reset rates, and other information that requires stateful TCP session handling. These metrics can be used to change the corresponding behavior of the stateless TCP connections implemented by programmable stateless packet processors 110 to more closely simulate a realistic mix of traffic. For instance, if measurement device 114 detects that a certain percentage of TCP/IP segments are being retransmitted, TCP AMP controller 112 on test device 102 may instruct programmable stateless packet processor 110 to retransmit the same percentage of TCP segments on the stateless connections. Thus, by using data collected on the stateful connections to modify test conditions on the stateless connections, test devices 102 and 104 closely simulate live network connections.
Test devices 102 and 104 may also include filters 116 for filtering data received on stateless and stateful TCP connections. For example, filters 116 may contain tables that associate IP addresses with stateless and stateful connections. When a packet is received over one of the connections, filters 116 determine whether to send the packets to TCP/IP stack 108 or programmable stateless packet processor 110 based on the connection tables.
Test devices 102 and 104 preferably also include TCP applications 118 and 120. In the illustrated example, TCP application 118 may be a client application, such as an HTTP client application. TCP application 120 may be a TCP server, such as an HTTP server. The present invention is not limited to using HTTP to test a device under test. Any application capable of using the underlying services of TCP to send or receive data is within the scope of the invention. For example, other applications that may be used include FTP, telnet, or other stateful application.
In the example illustrated in
Transmit field programmable gate array (TX FPGA) 204 and buffer memory 206 may implement programmable stateless packet processors 110 illustrated in
In the illustrated embodiment, test device 102 includes an RX FPGA 208 and buffer memory 210. Components 208 and 210 preferably implement packet filters 116 illustrated in
Physical layer chip 212 provides the physical interface for transmitting and receiving packets. The type of interface implemented by component 212 may be an electrical interface or an optical interface. For example, component 212 may implement Ethernet over a 100 Base T copper media or IP using Packet Over SONET over optical media. In the illustrated example, processor 200, TX FPGA 204, and RX FPGA 208 are connected via address lines 216, data lines 218, and a system bus 220. System bus 220 allows a host controller or client application to manage multiple ports in a coordinated fashion. For example, in an actual implementation, multiple adapter cards, each containing the multiple sets of the components in
Stateful connections with the device under test may be established using stateful TCP connection establishment procedures as described in the above-referenced TCP/IP protocol standards documents. An exemplary procedure for establishing simulated stateless TCP/IP connections with a device under test will be described in detail below with regard to
In step ST2, test device 102 requests data on the stateless and stateful connections. If the device under test is a web server, requesting data may include requesting data using the HTTP protocol. If the device under test is a server load balancer, requesting data may include requesting data from any type of application server that may be proxied by a server load balancer. In step ST3, performance and/or behavior measurements are gathered on the stateful TCP connections. As stated above, examples of such metrics include the rate of connections being dropped, the rate of retransmissions, the rate of packets being dropped, etc. In step ST4, these measurements are used to modify the behavior of the simulated stateless connections to more closely simulate live network conditions. For example, if it is determined that packets are being retransmitted a certain rate on the stateful connections, test device 102 may be configured to retransmit packets at the same rate. If the device under test is a server load balancer and the device on the other side of the server load balancer is test device 104, programmable stateless packet processor 110 of test device 104 may be configured to retransmit data packets to test device 102. Test device 102 may be configured by its local TCP AMP controller 112 to disregard retransmitted packets.
Since programmable stateless packet processor 110 only reacts to inbound packets, some independent mechanism must be used to initiate a sequence of response packets. One method for initiating a response is by generating a “synchronous stream” of SYN packets using traditional packet-blaster capability that may be available in TX FPGA 204. This sync stream can generate packets at up to wire speed with extremely precise timing of gaps between packets (fractions of a microsecond precision). In a typical test, a sync stream will be configured to kick off the pseudo-sessions. The rate will be programmed according to the test that a user wants to perform.
One exemplary measurement that a user may want to determine in testing a device or a network is the number of sessions of a given type that can be handled at a given tolerable drop rate. For example, an SLB manufacturer might want to know how many HTTP GETs of a particular average size (or mix) can be done per second before their device starts dropping packets (due to buffers filling, for example).
The measured retransmit rate from the full stack in software can be used to change the rate of the sync stream on the stateless connections (continuously without stopping/restarting the test) until the desired drop rate is achieved (in this case, zero—but in practicality it will be some small percentage). This is much more efficient than other methods which require a linear or binary search to “home in” on the maximum rate achievable at some drop rate. A search algorithm like this would require running large numbers of tests in succession at different initial rates. The present invention thus avoids these difficulties associated with conventional test methods.
Although in the example illustrated in
In yet another alternative embodiment, the present invention may include a method and a system for testing a device under test using programmable stateless TCP processor 110 without using feedback.
If programmable stateless packet processor 110 determines that a response is required for the received packet, programmable stateless packet processor 110 prepares a response packet based on the information in the received packet. For example, in step ST4, programmable stateless packet processor 110 swaps the source and destination addresses in the IP and Ethernet headers of the received packet, assuming Ethernet is the underlying communication medium. In step ST5, programmable stateless packet processor 110 sets the appropriate bits in the TCP and network headers. This step may include computing header checksums, inserting the correct sequence number value based on the received sequence number, inserting the correct value in the TCP CODE BITS field, etc. The type of response packet may be determined based on the fields in the received packet. For example, if the CODE BITS field in the TCP header of the received packet indicates that the received packet is a SYN packet, then programmable stateless packet processor 110 changes the bits in the CODE BITS field of the outgoing packet to indicate that the packet is a SYN plus ACK. In another example, if the incoming packet contains data, programmable stateless packet processor 110 may set the appropriate bits in the CODE BITS field of the outgoing packet to indicate that the outgoing packet contains an acknowledgement.
Once the packet is constructed, in step ST6, the packet is sent to the device under test. Thus, as illustrated in
In order to efficiently respond to received packets in a stateless manner, programmable stateless packet processor may utilize a number of data structures in order to classify and prepare responses to incoming packets. In one exemplary embodiment, programmable stateless packet processor 110 utilizes a packet classification table to classify incoming packets, a response table to determine responses for each packet classification, and a packets table to determine a packet format for each response type.
Packet classification table 500 may contain bit patterns and offsets for each of the above-listed packet types.
The packet classification identifiers extracted from packet classification table 500 may be used to locate responses in response table 502. There may be multiple responses in response table 502 corresponding to each packet classification type. In a situation where there are multiple responses for a given packet classification type, the responses may be ordered and programmable stateless packet processor 502 may execute the responses in sequence. In response table 502, each response may include a packet classification identifier, a starting packet identifier, the number of packets to be included in the response, and instructions for determining acknowledgement and sequence numbers to be included in the response packet.
Each packet identifier in response table 502 may be used to locate a corresponding packet template in packet table 504. Packet table 504 may contain templates for various types of response packets, such as SYN packets, ACK packets, data packets, etc. These response templates may be used to build outgoing packets based on data extracted from received packets in the manner discussed above with regard to
In operation, when programmable stateless packet processor 110 receives a packet, it searches the packet for various patterns located at various offsets according to packet classification table 502. In response to locating a matching pattern, programmable stateless packet processor 110 uses extracts the packet classification ID and uses this value to obtain a response from response table 502. Programmable stateless packet processor 110 uses information extracted from response table 502 to extract a template from packets table 504. Programmable stateless packet processor 110 then builds the packet using the extracted template. This process may be repeated for each response stored in response table 502 for the given packet type and each packet in packets table 504 until the desired packet is sent.
In line 5 of the message flow diagram, programmable stateless packet processor 110 of test device 102 sends a TCP segment containing an acknowledgement plus an HTTP GET request to server 250 to request data from server 250. In line 6 of the message flow diagram, server 250 receives the HTTP GET message, extracts the requested data, and sends the requested data to test device 102. In line 7 of the message flow diagram, test device 102 receives the data and formulates a response packet based on the data packet. In this case, the response packet is an ACK packet.
In line 9 of the message flow diagram, programmable stateless packet processor 110 of test device 102 sends a FIN plus ACK packet to server 250 to initiate a connection close. In line 10 of the message flow diagram, server 250 receives the FIN and sends an ACK to the FIN. In line 11 of the message flow diagram, programmable stateless packet processor 110 of test device 102 receives the ACK. Because the ACK does not include any data in this example, programmable stateless packet processor 110 of test device 102 determines that no response is required. In line 12 of the message flow diagram, server 250, sends a FIN plus ACK packet to test device 102 to instruct the test system to close its connection. In line 13 of the message flow diagram, programmable stateless packet processor 110 of test device 102 receives the SYN plus ACK packet. Since programmable stateless packet processor 110 does not know that the connection is open, programmable stateless packet processor 110 simply sends an acknowledgement to the FIN packet. In line 14 of the message flow diagram, server 250 receives the FIN packet, and closes and releases resources for its local connection.
Multiple simulated connections and HTTP requests may be concurrently initiated with a device under test by repeating the steps illustrated in
Table 2 shown below illustrates exemplary metrics that may be used to test a device under test, such as a server load balancer or an application server, such as a web server.
Client application must generate multiple
requests concurrently and/or before previous
requests complete. Test system must maintain
count of how many requests are outstanding
(i.e.: TCP connection opened but not closed)
at any instant in time.
Client application must generate large number
of requests in parallel and in rapid succession.
Test system must maintain count of requests
and responses per second.
Perform multiple session/second tests with
increasing numbers of concurrent sessions
second as function
An exemplary procedure for performing each of the test metrics illustrated in Table 2 will now be described.
A system for testing stateful network communications devices according to an embodiment of the present invention may collect and display statistics for each test performed.
A system for testing a stateful network communications device according to the present invention achieves higher performance at a lower cost than conventional systems. Depending on how stateful the device being tested is, and how much of a full TCP stack it implements, there are several alternative means of generating adequate traffic to test the performance limits of the device. Each method presents a tradeoff between cost, complexity and realism. Determining which method is the least expensive acceptable method depends on validating the test results for each method against those obtained with real traffic. As will be seen in Table 3 shown below, a system for testing stateful network communications devices according to the present invention gives better performance per unit cost over conventional test systems.
In Table 3, the second to last column includes cost and performance data for a system for testing a stateful network communications device according to an embodiment of the present invention. The remaining columns include cost and performance data for conventional test systems. It can be seen from the last row in Table 3 that the cost for testing one million sessions per second using a system for testing a stateful network communications device according to an embodiment of the present invention is $80,000 using current hardware as compared to $1 million for full TCP stack implementations. Stateless implementations, such as packet blasters are cheaper. However, as discussed above, such devices are unsuitable for testing stateful devices, such as next generation server load balancers. Thus, test systems according to embodiments of the present inventions provide the same testing functionality as full-stack devices at a much lower cost.
TCP Traffic Generation Capabilities for Various Methods
MAC DA/SA (swap)
IP DA/SA (swap)
TCP src/dst port (swap)
TCP control bits (change
X (1, 2)
TCP Sequence # (compute)
TCP Dynamic Window Size
HTTP Get Response (static
HTTP Cookie (static
HTTP Cookie (dynamic
TCP open/close per sec, per
port, thousands (5)
Est Cost to test IM
sessions/sec, $k (6)
(1) limitations vary by implementation
(2) fixed state sequence only
(3) limited number of static URL/page pairs
(4) not handled individually on a per-session basis
(5) on 100 mbps full duplex Ethernet link, mid-range estimate (varies by implementation & hardware)
(6) based on $2,000 per port or PC (for SW stack)
It will be understood that various details of the invention may be changed without departing from the scope of the invention. Furthermore, the foregoing description is for the purpose of illustration only, and not for the purpose of limitation—the invention being defined by the claims.
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|19 Mar 2007||AS||Assignment|
Owner name: IXIA, CALIFORNIA
Free format text: ASSIGNMENT OF ASSIGNORS INTEREST;ASSIGNORS:HANNEL, CLIFFORD L.;SCHAFER, DOUGLAS E.;GINSBERG, ERROL;AND OTHERS;REEL/FRAME:019030/0549;SIGNING DATES FROM 20011011 TO 20011105
|3 Aug 2012||FPAY||Fee payment|
Year of fee payment: 4
|25 Jan 2013||AS||Assignment|
Owner name: BANK OF AMERICA, N.A., AS ADMINISTRATIVE AGENT, TE
Free format text: SECURITY AGREEMENT;ASSIGNOR:IXIA;REEL/FRAME:029698/0060
Effective date: 20121221
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Owner name: SILICON VALLEY BANK, AS SUCCESSOR ADMINISTRATIVE A
Free format text: NOTICE OF SUBSTITUTION OF ADMINISTRATIVE AGENT;ASSIGNOR:BANK OF AMERICA, N.A., RESIGNING ADMINISTRATIVE AGENT;REEL/FRAME:034870/0598
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