country in eastern Europe, and the second largest country in Europe after
Russia. Ukraine is bordered on the west by Poland, Slovakia, and Hungary;
on the southwest by Romania and Moldova; on the south by the Black Sea
and Sea of Azov; on the east and northeast by Russia; and on the north
by Belarus. The Crimean Autonomous Republic—encompassing the Crimean Peninsula,
or Crimea, in the south—is included in Ukraine's borders. The capital and
largest city is Kyiv.
Much of Ukraine is a fertile plain suited for agriculture. Ukraine is rich in natural resources, and has a developed economy with significant agricultural and industrial sectors. The country has a democratic form of government headed by a president.
From the 9th century AD northern Ukraine was part of Kyivan Rus, the first significant East Slavic state, which succumbed to the Mongol invasions of the 13th century. Ukraine was for centuries thereafter under the rule of a succession of foreign powers, including Poland and the Russian Empire. In 1918 a Bolshevik (Communist) government was established in Ukraine, and in 1922 the Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic (SSR) was one of the four founding republics of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR). Ukraine's declaration of independence, approved by a popular vote on December 1, 1991, was a major factor in the USSR's collapse later that month.
Land and Resources
The total area of Ukraine is 603,700 sq km (233,090 sq mi). The country extends 1316 km (818 mi) east to west and 893 km (555 mi) north to south. Much of the country is a rolling upland plain, with the highest elevations in the western half of the country and the southeastern Donets'ka region. A lowland region of wooded bogs and swamps, called the Poles'ye (Pripet) Marshes, is located in northern Ukraine, although much of this region has been drained and cleared for agriculture. Low-lying plains are found in southern Ukraine in the lower Dnieper (Dnipro) River Basin and the Black Sea coastal region. Ukraine's coastline, including Crimea, extends about 1050 km (about 650 mi). The Carpathian Mountains in the extreme west and the Crimean Mountains in the southern end of Crimea take up about 5 percent of Ukraine's territory. Mount Hoverla in the Carpathians is the country's highest peak at 2061 m (6762 ft).
Rivers and Lakes
The Dnieper, Europe's third largest river, flows through central Ukraine and forms the country's main river network. More than half of the country's rivers belong to this system. The Dnieper is Ukraine's longest river, measuring about 980 km (about 610 mi) in length within the country's borders. Other major rivers are the Dniester (Dnister), the Bug (Buh), and the Southern Bug (Pivdennyy Buh) in the west, and the Donets in the east. The Danube (Dunay) forms part of Ukraine's border with Romania in the extreme southwest. Except for the Bug, which flows northward into the Wis?a (Vistula) in Poland, all of Ukraine's major rivers flow southward and empty into the Black Sea or the Sea of Azov. Ukraine has more than 3000 small lakes that cover about 3 percent of its territory.
Plant and Animal Life
four major zones of plant life, from north to south, are forest, forest-steppe,
steppe, and Mediterranean. In the forest zone, beech trees are widespread
in the west; linden, oak, and pine are found in the swamps and meadows
in the north and northwest; and spruce is prevalent in the northeast. In
the central forest-steppe zone, grasslands are interspersed with numerous
trees, mainly oak. The steppe zone, which covers the lower third of Ukraine,
features grassy plains. In the extreme south, the steppe is dry with thin-leaved
grass. The Mediterranean zone, which encompasses a narrow strip along the
southern Crimean coast, contains a mix of evergreen and deciduous shrubs
rich and conveniently located natural resources. About half of its territory,
especially the central and southern regions, consists of the exceptionally
fertile black chernozem, a type of soil that is ideal for agriculture.
Forests cover 13 percent of Ukraine's territory. The Donets Basin in the
southeast is especially well endowed with large deposits of coal, while
the east central Kryvyy Rih area is rich in iron ore. Ukraine has some
of the world's largest manganese deposits, located in south central Ukraine
at Nikopol' (Nykopil). There are also considerable deposits of oil and
natural gas in the Carpathian foothills, the Donets Basin, and along the
Soviet policies of raising industrial and agricultural productivity with little regard to ecological considerations have had a devastating effect on the environment. Air pollution is especially severe in such industrial centers as Zaporizhzhya, Luhans'k, and Donets'ka. Industrial and agricultural pollutants have contaminated soil in the south and drinking water throughout the country. High-level radioactive contamination of the soil and food chain has been a concern since the April 1986 explosion and core meltdown of a reactor at the Chernobyl' nuclear power station, located in northern Ukraine near the city of Chernobyl'. Northern Ukraine and especially southern Belarus were the most severely contaminated areas from the radioactive plume that was released in the explosion. The long-term impact on human health and the environment is still being assessed. The four Chernobyl' reactors, one of which was still operating in mid-1997, continue to be a major hazard, especially to Ukraine's water supply. Complete closure of the Chernobyl' complex is scheduled to occur by the end of the century with the financial assistance of Western nations. Meanwhile, Ukraine lacks funds for recycling and conservation programs, and pollution controls remain at a minimum.
The People of Ukraine
The population of Ukraine was estimated in 1996 at 51,230,000, giving the country a population density of 85 persons per sq km (220 per sq mi). The most notable recent demographic trend has been a decline in population—with an estimated loss of 714,000 between 1991 and 1996—due to death rates exceeding birth rates. Leading factors in the country's low fertility and high mortality rates are environmental pollution, poor diet, widespread smoking and alcoholism, and deteriorating medical care. About 68 percent of the population lives in cities and towns. The largest cities in Ukraine are Kyiv, the country's capital and economic, cultural, and educational center; Kharkiv, noted for its engineering expertise, machinery plants, and educational institutions; Dnipropetrovs'k, a center of metallurgical and aerospace industries; and Donets'ka, known for mining and metallurgy. Odesa (Odessa), on the Black Sea coast, is the country's largest seaport.
Ethnic Groups and Languages
comprise 73 percent of the population of Ukraine. Russians are the largest
minority group at 22 percent. Jews (considered both an ethnic and a religious
group in Ukraine) and Belarusians each account for about 1 percent of the
total. Other numerically significant groups are Bulgarians, Poles, Hungarians,
and Romanians. Since the end of World War II in 1945, the proportion of
Russians nearly doubled, while the Jewish population declined by about
half as a result of emigration. Ethnic clashes are rare, although some
tension exists in Crimea between Crimean Tatars and ethnic Russians. The
Crimean Tatars, who were forcibly deported to Central Asia in 1944, are
being allowed to resettle in Crimea. Of the 250,000 who have returned,
about 100,000 still have inadequate housing and 70,000 have not yet received
During most of the Soviet period, the state imposed severe restrictions on religious activity, banned many churches, and persecuted religious leaders. Many believers, forced underground, continued to adhere to their faiths, however. Religious activity remained relatively strong in Ukraine, and it has greatly expanded since the collapse of the Soviet Union in 1991. A majority of the population, or 67 percent, adheres to Eastern Orthodoxy in alliance with the Ukrainian Orthodox Church or the Ukrainian Autocephalous (independent) Orthodox Church. Until 1990 all of the country's Orthodox churches were part of the Ukrainian exarchate, which was subsidiary to the patriarchate (jurisdiction of the patriarch, or head) of the Russian Orthodox Church. In 1992 the Ukrainian Orthodox Church split into two rival denominations when the Kyivan patriarchate was formed, separating itself from the Moscow patriarchate. The autocephalous church, which was banned by the Soviet government in 1930, regained legal status in 1990. Nearly 10 percent of the population, based almost exclusively in western Ukraine, belongs to the Ukrainian Catholic (Uniate) Church, a church of the Byzantine rite (see Eastern Rite Churches); banned in 1946, this church was officially revived in 1991. Other denominations include Roman Catholics of the Latin rite, Jews, Muslims, and Baptists.
Literacy is almost universal in Ukraine, and education is compulsory between the ages of 7 and 16. Ukraine's institutions of higher learning include ten universities and a large number of specialized academies. The most prestigious is the University of Kyiv (founded in 1834), located in the capital. L'viv State University (1784), located in L'viv, is the country's oldest university. In recent years private schools and universities have appeared, most notably the Kyiv-Mohyla Academy (1992), located in Kyiv.
Way of Life
society was traditionally agrarian and village-based. With Soviet rule
came rapid modernization and urbanization. By the 1960s, most inhabitants
lived in cities. Important regional differences developed in Ukraine; today
the west tends to be more agrarian, traditionalist, religious, and Ukrainian-speaking,
while the east is industrialized, urbanized, and more often Russian-speaking.
The highly regimented lifestyle of the Soviet period is slowly being supplanted
by a consumer society. However, the transition to a market-based economy
is difficult, and most people have been engaged in a desperate struggle
to make ends meet.
from the Soviet period has brought serious new problems. Much of the old
elite (nomenklatura) has weathered the transition well. Many Soviet-era
managers and factory directors retained their positions and profited from
privatization. Highly placed members of the Communist Party hierarchy and
security apparatus moved into business, often of a dubious kind. A thin
stratum of new rich has begun to appear.
geographical location between Europe and Asia meant that much of its early
culture was a synthesis of Eastern and Western influences. When a developed
culture emerged in the medieval, or Kyivan, period, the influence of the
Byzantine Empire was paramount. In early modern times, major European currents
such as the Renaissance reached Ukraine via Poland. A cultural dichotomy
today exists within Ukraine, with western regions reflecting European,
especially Polish, influence, while in the eastern regions the impact of
Russian culture is evident.
that emerged between the 11th century and 13th century was primarily religious
and based on Byzantine and Balkan models. It was written in Old Church
Slavonic, which diverged from the spoken language, and dealt with gospels,
psalms, sermons, and lives of saints. Historical and other secular topics
were treated in chronicles, notably the Primary Chronicle. The works of
this period, produced in the East Slavic state of Kyivan Rus, are also
the literary heritage of Belarus and Russia.
Art and Architecture
prehistoric and Greek paintings have been discovered in Ukraine, the first
major style to develop was the religious iconography of the Kyivan period.
Between the 16th and 18th centuries, long-standing Byzantine traditions
gave way to European influences during the Renaissance and the baroque
period, when secular, non-religious themes were introduced. Portraits were
especially popular. When eastern Ukraine lost its autonomy under Russian
rule in the late 18th century, many Ukrainian painters, such as Dmytro
Levytsky, moved to Russia in search of training and wider markets.
Music and Dance
possess a remarkable repertoire of folk songs, and singing is an important
part of their culture. In the 17th century they developed an innovative
form of choral singing a cappella (without instrumental accompaniment).
Important composers of church music in the late 18th century included Maksym
Berezovsky, Dmytro Bortniansky, and Artem Vedel. In the 19th century, Semen
Hulak-Artemovsky wrote a popular comic opera based on folk themes, Zaporozhets
za Dunayem (Zaporozhian Beyond the Danube, 1863). A high point in musical
creativity came in the early 20th century when Mykola Lysenko established
a school of music that drew heavily on folk songs for inspiration.
Theater and Film
modern times, the vertep (puppet theater) was widespread and popular. Mykhailo
Starytsky, Ivan Karpenko-Kary, and Marko Kropyvnytsky laid the foundation
of modern Ukrainian theater in the late 19th century. Despite repression
under Russian rule, it continued to develop. The high point was reached
in the early 1920s when the avant-garde Berezil Theater in Kharkiv, under
Les Kurbas, staged such plays as Mykola Kulish's Narodnii Malakhii, Myna
Mazailo, and Patetychna Sonata. Stalinist repression cut this revival short,
and socialist realism stifled further innovation. Only in recent years
have innovation and experimentation been possible.
Libraries and Museums
library in Ukraine is the Central Library of the Ukrainian Academy of Sciences
(founded in 1918) in Kyiv. The academy's scientific library in L'viv (1940)
is the country's second largest library. Other prominent libraries are
the Scientific and Technical Library of Ukraine (1935) and the State Public
Library (1866), both in Kyiv, as well as numerous university libraries.
the second-ranking Soviet republic in industrial and agricultural production,
after Russia. Long known as the "breadbasket of Europe," Ukraine traditionally
had a highly developed agricultural sector because of its vast, fertile
lands. It generated more than one-fourth of the total agricultural output
of the Soviet Union. Industrial development was a high priority of the
Soviet government. In the 1930s Ukraine experienced a rapid and extensive
industrial upsurge, mainly in the mineral-rich Donets'ka and Kryvyy Rih
regions. Because of Soviet development, which emphasized heavy industry,
Ukraine possesses one of the most industrialized economies of Europe. However,
its industries are highly inefficient and in pressing need of modernization.
The country's labor force totals approximately 28 million people. About 40 percent of workers are employed in industry, 40 percent in the service sector, and 20 percent in agriculture. Unemployment is rising steadily, especially in the form of hidden unemployment, which includes people who have been kept on payrolls but have not been paid salaries. Although official data reported an unemployment rate of only 1.6 percent in 1996, the minister of labor acknowledged an actual rate of more than 11 percent. Trade union membership is strong, reaching nearly 100 percent of the workforce. The miners' unions are especially active.
The primary crops are wheat, corn, and sugar beets. Small private plots account for much of the vegetables and fruits that are grown. Livestock raising is widespread and involves cattle, hogs, sheep, and goats. Despite heavy government subsidies, agricultural output declined by 35 percent between 1990 and 1995. Collective cooperatives and state-owned farms, holdovers from the Soviet period, continue to outnumber privately owned farms; private ownership is allowed, but lack of capital, social attitudes, and the high cost of fuel have discouraged it. The major agricultural regions are located in central and southern Ukraine, where the fertile chernozem soil is found.
Forestry and Fishing
Forestry is based in the Carpathian Mountains in western Ukraine. This sector has been in decline for decades because of excessive timber harvesting in the 1950s and 1960s. Consequently, Ukraine imports much of its lumber and paper. The fishing industry, once relatively well developed, experienced a sharp drop in productivity in 1992 from which it has not recovered. The catch of common carp, for example, decreased from 105 metric tons in 1991 to 45 metric tons in 1992.
Ukraine is the world's largest producer of manganese ore and second largest producer of iron ore. Reserves of these minerals are located primarily in the south central Kryvyy Rih area. Ukraine is also the world's fourth largest producer of bituminous coal (soft coal), which is concentrated in the Donets Basin of the southeastern Donets'ka region. The mining sector is hampered by outdated equipment and inefficiency, however, and its productivity severely declined between 1990 and 1995.
Ukraine has a large ferrous metallurgical industry. Heavy industries such as metalworking, mechanical engineering, and machinery and chemicals manufacturing also dominate the industrial sector. Light industries producing consumer goods such as household appliances are underdeveloped by Western standards. Between 1990 and 1995, output in major industries such as metallurgy, coal mining, and chemicals manufacturing decreased by nearly 60 percent. Since the collapse of the Soviet Union, Ukraine's industrial sector has been cut off from its traditional markets, and supplies from former republics are no longer easily accessible. Products of relatively poor quality and stiff international competition obstruct entry into the global market, while the increasing cost of the energy needed to power industry makes many items too expensive to produce. Other products, especially those of the large defense sector, are no longer in demand.
Many of the enterprises included in the service sector are poorly developed, especially in rural areas. The tourism industry, for example, is hindered by a shortage of hotels and inadequate transportation.
Most of Ukraine's energy, or about 60 percent, is supplied by coal- and oil-based thermal power stations. Less than 10 percent of its energy is supplied by hydroelectric stations, most notably the Dniprohes hydroelectric station on the Dnieper near Zaporizhzhya, one of Europe's largest. Ukraine's five nuclear power plants generate about 30 percent of the country's electricity. To supply its energy needs, Ukraine must import 80 percent of its natural gas and 90 percent of its oil. Lacking the funds to purchase what it needs, however, Ukraine has had to sharply curtail its consumption of these sources. The resulting energy shortage explains the country's reluctance to immediately shut down the hazardous Chernobyl' nuclear power station. Ukraine's reliance on nuclear power is expected to increase, with the government planning to complete construction on two plants that were partially built during the Soviet period.
Transportation and Communications
an extensive state-owned and centrally planned transportation system of
uneven quality. There are about 163,000 km (about 101,000 mi) of roads
and highways and 23,000 km (14,000 mi) of railroad track. The Dnieper and
the Danube rivers are major waterways for international freight. Major
airports are in Kyiv, Kharkiv, Odesa, Donets'ka, and L'viv. Air Ukraine
is the national airline. The largest seaports, located on the Black Sea
coast, are in Odesa, Illchinsk, and Mykolayiv. Major cities have subway
systems, but automobiles are the fastest growing mode of transportation.
In 1995 Ukraine
imported about $14.5 billion of goods and exported about $11.5 billion.
The major imports are oil and gas from Russia and Turkmenistan and technology
from Western nations. Exports, which are minimal for a developed country,
consist mainly of raw materials and agricultural goods. Major trading partners
are Russia, Belarus, Turkey, Turkmenistan, Germany, the United States,
Italy, and China. Ukraine is experiencing great difficulty breaking into
the global market, and much of its export goes to former Soviet republics.
Currency and Banking
In September 1996 Ukraine introduced its new currency, the hryvnia (1.8 hryvni equal U.S.$1, 1996). The currency of the Soviet period, the ruble, ceased to be legal tender in 1992 when it was replaced with a temporary coupon currency, the karbovanets. In 1993 already high inflation reached hyperinflationary levels, with an average annual rate of 4735 percent; however, a strict monetary policy introduced in late 1994 significantly reduced inflation in 1995 and 1996. The country's bank of issue is the National Bank of Ukraine, founded in 1991 and located in Kyiv.
Although the collapse of the Soviet Union in 1991 brought Ukraine independence, the rigidly centralized Soviet structure of government remained. The first five years were a tumultuous time of trying to establish democratic institutions and traditions. Ukraine's first direct presidential election was held in 1991. In 1994 an early presidential election took place, as well as elections to the legislature. Ukraine was the last of the former Soviet republics to adopt a new constitution. The delay was caused by a struggle in the legislature between reformers, who wanted to introduce a new, democratic system of government, and conservatives, who wanted to preserve the structures of the former Soviet state. The reformers finally triumphed in June 1996 when the legislature adopted a new constitution that stipulated a democratic form of government. All citizens aged 18 and over are eligible to vote.
Under the 1996 constitution, the president is head of state. The president is elected by direct, majority vote for a term of five years and may serve no more than two consecutive terms. The president appoints the prime minister and, under the advice of the prime minister, also appoints the Cabinet of Ministers. These appointments are subject to confirmation by the legislature. The prime minister is head of government and is responsible for carrying out its policies.
The legislature (Verkhovna Rada, or Supreme Council) consists of a single chamber of 450 deputies elected for four-year terms. The inability of some candidates to win absolute majorities in their constituencies has left a number of these seats unfilled. Among its prerogatives, the legislature has the right to change the constitution, pass laws, confirm the budget, and impeach the president.
The highest court is the Constitutional Court, which is charged with protecting and interpreting the constitution. The president, the legislature, and a conference of judges each appoint six of the court's 18 members. The Supreme Court is the highest appeals court for nonconstitutional issues. A Supreme Judiciary Council, consisting of 20 members, recommends judiciary appointments and deals with the removal of judges.
Although Ukraine is a unitary state, its constitution allows for a considerable degree of decentralization. The country is divided into 24 oblasts (districts) and one autonomous republic, Crimea. The cities of Kyiv and Sevastopol' have special status; their governments, which operate independently of oblast authority, are responsible only to the central government in Kyiv. Local councils and executive bodies, elected every four years, are responsible for their jurisdiction's taxes, budgets, schools, roads, utilities, and public health. The Crimean Autonomous Republic enjoys far-ranging autonomy within Ukraine, including its own constitution, legislature, and Cabinet of Ministers. The latter controls Crimea's government and economy, but is restricted from implementing policies that would contradict the constitution of Ukraine.
In the late 1980s, when the Communist Party began to lose influence, the first non-Communist political groups appeared. However, the Communist Party was Ukraine's only legal party until its constitutional monopoly was abolished in 1990. The Communist Party was banned from 1991 to 1993, but by 1994 it was Ukraine's largest party. More than 40 political parties were officially registered in the mid-1990s, most of which had only several thousand members. Ukraine's entire party system is poorly developed, and its political parties lack local organization and grassroots support. The electoral system allows workers' collectives to nominate candidates for the legislature, thus weakening the role of parties in the electoral process. As a result, almost 170 members of the legislature have no party affiliation. Of the parties represented in the 1994 elections to the legislature, the Communist Party won the most seats, while the People's Movement of Ukraine, known as Rukh, won the second largest number of seats. In general, Ukraine's political parties fall into four categories: extreme nationalists, such as the Ukrainian National Assembly; moderate nationalists, such as Rukh, the Congress of Ukrainian Nationalists, and the Ukrainian Republican Party; centrists, such as the Liberal Party and the Social Democratic Party; and the left, such as the Communist Party of Ukraine, the Peasants' Party of Ukraine, and the Ukrainian Socialist Party.
Ukraine has retained much of the Soviet-style system of social welfare and free medical care, financed by the government. The country's economic crisis has had a catastrophic impact on these services, however. Pensions, averaging between $30 and $40 per month, barely assure survival. Hospitals are deteriorating, doctors are poorly paid, and medicine and equipment are in short supply.
armed forces are the second largest in Europe, after those of Russia. Of
approximately 450,000 personnel, about 250,000 are in the ground forces,
about 90,000 are in the air force, and about 60,000 are in the navy. Other
types of forces, mainly border guards, number about 50,000. Military service
is compulsory for all males 18 and older; those with higher education serve
12 months, and those without it serve 18 months.
In 1945 Ukraine became a member of the United Nations (UN). In December 1991 it was a founding member of the CIS, and in November 1995 it became a full member of the Council of Europe. It is also a member of the Organization on Security and Cooperation in Europe (OSCE).
Ukraine's geographic location between Europe and Asia was an important factor in its early history. The steppes were the domain of Asiatic nomads, the Black Sea coast was inhabited by Greek colonists, and the forests in the northwest were the homeland of the agrarian East Slavic tribes from whom, eventually, the Ukrainian, Russian, and Belarusian nations evolved. As the East Slavs expanded, they accepted, in the 9th century, a Varangian (Viking) elite that led them to establish a vast domain, centered in Kyiv (Kiev) and called Kyivan Rus. It became one of the largest, richest, and most powerful lands in medieval Europe. In 988 Saint Volodymyr (Vladimir), grand prince of Kyiv, accepted Orthodox Christianity, and in this way brought Kyivan Rus under the cultural influence of the Byzantine Empire. Inter-princely feuds, shifting trade routes, and recurrent nomadic attacks weakened Kyivan Rus, however, and in 1240 it fell to the invading Mongols. Only the western principality of Galicia-Volhynia managed to retain its autonomy for about a century thereafter.
In the mid-14th
century the grand duchy of Lithuania gained control of most Ukrainian lands,
while the Polish kingdom ruled the western region of Galicia. In 1569 most
of Ukraine was annexed into Poland when the Union of Lublin joined the
Lithuanian duchy and the Polish kingdom—already linked dynastically since
the late 14th century—in a constitutional union, the Polish-Lithuanian
The Soviet Period
monarchy was overthrown during the Russian Revolution of 1917, and the
Russian Empire ceased to exist. The Bolsheviks (Communists) seized power
and established a new Soviet government in Russia. Ukraine, represented
by the Central Rada led by Mykhailo Hrushevsky, declared independence in
early 1918. However, the first modern Ukrainian government collapsed following
invasions by the Soviet Red Army and German intervention. Subsequent Ukrainian
governments, led by Pavlo Skoropadsky and Symon Petlyura, also failed to
withstand Red Army invasions, and a Bolshevik-affiliated government was
established in most of Ukraine. The Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic
(SSR) was a founding member of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics
(USSR) in 1922. With the collapse of the Austro-Hungarian Empire at the
end of World War I in 1918, an independent west Ukrainian republic was
formed in Galicia. It entered into federation with the briefly independent
east Ukrainian state. However, the west Ukrainians lost a bitter struggle
with the Poles and were incorporated into Poland in 1923. Czechslovakia
and Romania absorbed Transcarpathia and Bukovina, respectively.
over independence soon faded in the face of mounting problems. In foreign
policy, the most serious problem was Ukraine's relations with Russia. The
Russian legislature raised questions about the inclusion of Crimea—where
ethnic Russians are in the majority and where the Black Sea Fleet is stationed—in
the new Ukrainian state. An active, vocal pro-Russian separatist movement
in Crimea added to the tensions. The autonomous government there voted
in February 1992 to create an independent Crimean republic, but rescinded
the declaration of independence two weeks later. The United States, for
its part, was uneasy about Ukraine retaining possession of the world's
third largest nuclear arsenal, which it had inherited when the Soviet Union
dissolved. Internally, tensions arose between the more nationalistic west
and the Sovietized east. Above all else, the rapid deterioration of the
economy was the most pressing concern. The collapse of the Soviet Union
accelerated the decline of an already seriously faltering economy. President
Kravchuk was slow in launching market-oriented reforms, and the growing
confrontation between the opposing political parties in the legislature
further complicated the situation.
Articles are from Encarta 98 Encyclopedia