Congregationalism, Christian movement that arose in England in the late 16th and 17th centuries. It occupies a theological position somewhere between Presbyterianism and the more radical Protestantism of the Baptists and Quakers. It emphasizes the right and responsibility of each properly organized congregation to determine its own affairs, without having to submit these decisions to the judgment of any higher human authority, and as such it eliminated bishops and presbyteries. Each individual church is regarded as independent and autonomous.
Although it was not always true in the early days in America, Congregationalists have generally been distrustful of state establishment of religion and have worked for civil and religious liberty. Their emphasis on the rights of the particular congregation and on freedom of conscience arose from their strong convictions concerning the sovereignty of God and the priesthood of all believers. This attitude has led many of them to adopt theological and social liberalism and to participate in the ecumenical movement.
Congregationalists were originally called Independents, as they still are in Welsh-speaking communities. Forming first in Britain and the United States, Congregationalism in the 20th century moved into other countries and formed united churches with other denominations throughout the world.
The “Congregational way” became prominent in England during the 17th-century Civil Wars, but its origins lie in 16th-century Separatism. Robert Browne has been regarded as the founder of Congregationalism, though he was an erratic character and Congregational ideas emerged independently of him. His beliefs were advanced by the Separatists (those advocating separation from rather than reform of the Church of England), many of whom were severely persecuted under Elizabeth I; three of them—John Greenwood, Henry Barrow, and John Penry—suffered martyrdom. A group of Separatists settled in Holland to escape persecution; some of its members later set sail for the New World on the Mayflower in 1620.
At the time of the Long Parliament (1640–53), many exiles returned to England, and the Independents, as they were then called, became increasingly active. They were particularly influential in the army because of their association with Oliver Cromwell. They moved away from the Presbyterians, with whom they had initially cooperated, drawing closer to the Baptists and the Fifth Monarchy Men (a Puritan millennialist sect). Their influence reached its peak during the Commonwealth in the 1650s, when their leaders, Hugh Peter, John Owen, and Thomas Goodwin, held positions of eminence. After Cromwell’s death in 1658, however, they were unable to hold the country together, and in the confused period before the recall of King Charles II in 1660 their political influence collapsed.
The advent of Charles II was a disaster for Congregationalists, and the Act of Uniformity of 1662 was the first of several attempts to root them out of English life. “Black Bartholomew”—St. Bartholomew’s Day, August 24, 1662, when some 2,000 Protestant ministers who denied the authority of the Church of England were ejected from their posts—was a great turning point in the history of English Dissent. Although Nonconformists were subjected to severe persecution, John Owen and others produced important works on Congregational belief; John Milton produced his greatest poems; and John Bunyan, though associated more with the Baptists, imprinted some of the characteristic religious attitudes of the Dissenters on the English consciousness.
The accession of William and Mary in 1688 and the consequent Toleration Act of 1689 assured the survival of Congregationalists, though they still faced civil disabilities. Their situation worsened during the reign of Queen Anne (1702–14). The Occasional Conformity Act (1711) forbade Dissenters from qualifying for public office by occasionally taking Communion at the Anglican parish church, and the Schism Act (1714) was directed against their schools. The death of Anne in 1714, before the Schism Act could be fully implemented, was considered providential by the Dissenters. They supported the new regime of George I (1714–27) and the Whig ascendancy, and for the next 50 years they enjoyed modest prosperity. Most of them belonged to the economically independent sections of society and lived in London and the older provincial towns.
In the 17th and 18th centuries Congregationalists were especially active in education. During the reign of Charles II (1660–85), Dissenters had been debarred from the universities, and many ejected ministers started small schools and colleges called academies such as Manchester Academy and New Hackney College. Their curricula, influenced by the educational theories of Francis Bacon and John Amos Comenius, were more in tune to the needs of everyday life than those of the universities, and they were the precursors of many later educational developments.
As the 17th century waned, religious zeal declined and rationalism became more influential. Deism and Arianism (a heresy denying the divinity of Christ) were widespread, the latter especially among the Presbyterians, some of whom adopted Unitarianism. Congregationalism did not go the same way, largely because of the influence of Philip Doddridge, minister of Northampton, who was a theologian, pastor, social reformer, educationist, and author of the devotional classic The Rise and Progress of Religion in the Soul (1745).
In the early 18th century, Congregationalism was profoundly influenced by the rise of Methodism and the Evangelical Revival (c. 1750–1815). Many ministers were deeply affected by the revival, and many people were inspired by Methodist preaching to join Congregational churches. Thus the great evangelist George Whitefield had close relations with Congregationalism, and many of the churches founded by Selina Hastings, countess of Huntingdon, a leading figure in the revival, have had a long-standing connection with Congregationalism. By 1815 Congregationalism had been reshaped by the Evangelical Revival, especially in the developing industrial areas of Lancashire and Yorkshire.
The outstanding result of the Evangelical Revival in Congregationalism was the founding of the Missionary Society (1795), later named the London Missionary Society (1818). Its purpose was not necessarily to spread Congregationalism but to proclaim “the glorious gospel of the blessed God,” leaving the new churches to determine their own form. Although it has always received support from Congregational churches, the London Missionary Society joined with two other missionary societies in 1977 to form the Council for World Mission of the United Reformed Church. These societies have established churches in Africa, Madagascar, India, China, Papua New Guinea, and on islands in the South Pacific. Many of these churches are now united in wider bodies, the most notable of which is the Church of South India.
The first half of the 19th century was a period of expansion and consolidation for Congregationalism. Many poorer people joined the churches, and a new political and social radicalism emerged. Voluntarism, which opposed state support of denominational education, and the Liberation Society, which advocated disestablishment, found widespread support. The Congregational Union of England and Wales, which linked the churches in a national organization, was founded in 1832, and the Colonial (later the Commonwealth) Missionary Society, which promoted Congregationalism in the English-speaking colonies, was established in 1836.
Congregational churches shared fully in the civil life and prosperity of the Victorian era. Many new buildings were erected, often in ambitious Gothic style. The churches’ association with the Liberal Party was greatly strengthened, and the restrictions against Dissenters were steadily removed. Thriving churches in new suburbs developed into hives of social, philanthropic, and educational activity, and their ministers deeply influenced public life. Although the picture of the philistine Dissenters drawn by the poet and critic Matthew Arnold in Culture and Anarchy (1869) contains a measure of truth, it underestimates the zeal for self-improvement and the desire for a richer life that existed in Victorian Congregationalism.
The Liberal victory of 1906 represented the peak of the social and political influence of Congregationalism. After that, Congregational churches shared in the institutional decline of most British churches, but they continued to show theological and cultural vitality. In October 1972 the majority of English Congregationalists and Presbyterians united to form the new United Reformed Church, which was joined in 1981 by the Churches of Christ, the small British counterpart of the American Disciples of Christ.
Wales, Ireland, and Scotland
Welsh-speaking Congregational churches did not join the United Reformed Church but organized separately in the Union of Welsh Independents. These churches grew up originally in the countryside but moved successfully to the developing industrial valleys in the 19th century. The churches have been strong centres of distinctively Welsh culture, and their ministers have often been national leaders. Their influence diminished in the 20th century as the population moved away from old centres of strength, but Welsh Congregationalists maintain their tradition of preaching, poetry, and hymnody.
Congregationalism in Scotland has been less prominent, and in Ireland it is almost nonexistent. In Scotland it arose in the 19th century out of dissatisfaction with the lack of missionary zeal of the Church of Scotland and soon united with a similar group called the Evangelical Union. Numerically small, it has made a distinctively liberal contribution to Scottish life and has produced many noteworthy figures, including the missionaries David Livingstone and Robert Moffat, the writer George Macdonald, and the theologian Peter Taylor Forsyth.
Congregationalism achieved its greatest influence and numerical strength in the United States, where it helped to determine the character of the nation as a result of the New England experiment, which established communities based on Congregational religious principles. The New England settlement was rooted in the Separatism of Plymouth colony and in the Puritanism of Massachusetts Bay. The first Separatists arrived on the Mayflower in 1620 from the exiled church at Leiden, Holland. The Puritans, unlike the Separatists, wished to reform the Church of England rather than to leave it. They left the country, however, to build a “godly commonwealth” that would be an example of what a new England, truly reformed according to the Word of God, might be. They were closer in spirit to the English Presbyterians than to the Separatists, but there was enough affinity between the two groups to enable them to live together in comparative harmony and to reject more-radical leaders such as Roger Williams and Anne Hutchinson. In 1648 the two groups united to produce the Cambridge Platform, a declaration of faith that accepted the theological position of the strongly Calvinistic Westminster Confession (1647) but maintained a Congregational polity. (The English Congregationalists produced a similar statement, the Savoy Declaration, in 1658.)
The original experiment demanded an intensely intellectual and spiritual commitment that made the New England colony unique. As the community matured and the second and third generations grew up, it became difficult to maintain the original high standards without suffering loss of membership. The result was the Half-Way Covenant of 1662, which allowed those who had been baptized but had not publicly professed a conversion experience to be church members without voting rights or admission to Communion.
The community was keenly interested in education from the outset, and one of its earliest acts was to start a college to provide a succession of learned ministers for its churches. Thus was founded Harvard College (1636), the first of a long line of colleges begun under Congregational auspices in America.
The American community, like the English, endured a gradual loss of religious fervour in the late 17th century, but new life came with the 18th-century Great Awakening, a widespread revival movement that began in 1734 under the influence of Jonathan Edwards. The Awakening, however, revealed the differences emerging between two wings of Congregationalism. On one side were those who maintained the Calvinist tradition, creatively restated by Edwards and his followers, with a greater emphasis on the affective elements in religion. On the other was a rapidly growing Unitarianism, which paralleled a similar movement in England. With the exception of the churches in Connecticut, where Congregationalism had taken root and remained the established church into the 19th century, many of the oldest Congregational churches became Unitarian by the early 19th century, including 12 of the 14 in Boston.
Despite the loss to Unitarianism, Congregationalism remained vigorous in the 19th century, and it was active in the westward expansion of the nation. The Presbyterians and Congregationalists, numerous in the Middle Atlantic states and New England, respectively, adopted a Plan of Union in 1801 for joint missionary activity in the western territories. The arrangement lasted for nearly half a century but broke down partly because of Congregationalism’s growing liberalism. The characteristic theologian of this period, Horace Bushnell, challenged the traditional substitutionary view of the Atonement (that Christ’s suffering and death atoned for man’s sins) and questioned the necessity of the classical conversion experience in his well-known book Christian Nurture (1847). Influential preachers such as Henry Ward Beecher and Washington Gladden popularized similar ideas. The so-called Kansas City Creed of 1913 summed up the liberalism of this period, which represented a radical break with the Calvinist past.
American Congregationalists have been active missionaries at home and abroad. A national Congregational organization was formed in 1871, and powerful Boards for Home Missions and Education were established, through which Northern Congregationalists did a great deal for African American education in the South, where there were virtually no indigenous Congregational churches. They also evangelized in the Middle East and in China before the communist revolution.
Modern American Congregationalism has shown itself singularly ready to unite with other churches. In 1931 the Congregationalists formed an association with the relatively small Christian Church (Disciples of Christ), which was concentrated in the upper South, and in 1957 it formed a more notable union with the Evangelical and Reformed Church, an important community of German Lutheran and Reformed background that claimed the eminent theologians Reinhold Niebuhr and Paul Tillich among its ministers. The new church body is known as the United Church of Christ. A minority of Congregational churches refused to join the union, and these remain separate.
Congregationalism has not become a popular worldwide form of church life, though it is represented in most English-speaking countries. Congregationalists were prominent in the formation of the Church of South India in 1947, and they have also become part of the United Church of Canada and of the Uniting Church in Australia. Through the International Congregational Council, united with the Reformed Alliance since 1970, they have had fraternal ties with churches of similar outlook in Europe, notably the Remonstrant Brotherhood of Holland and the Swedish Mission Covenant Church.
Throughout their history, Congregationalists have shared the beliefs and practices of the more liberal mainline Evangelical Protestant churches of the English-speaking world. The English historian Bernard Manning once described their position as decentralized Calvinism, in contrast to the centralized Calvinism of Presbyterians. That description contains much truth about their doctrines and outlook through the early 19th century, but it underestimates the Congregational emphasis on the free movement of the Spirit, which links the Congregationalists with the Quakers and partly explains their reluctance to give binding authority to creedal statements. They have not been slow to produce declarations of faith, however. In addition to the Savoy Declaration, the Cambridge Platform, and the Kansas City Creed, lengthy statements have also been made both by the United Church of Christ and by the English Congregationalists. No great authority is claimed for any of these, and in recent generations most Congregationalists have regarded the primitive confession, “Jesus is Lord,” as a sufficient basis for membership.
Similarly, Congregationalists have always stressed the importance of freedom. Even in the days of Cromwell, they were tolerant by the standards of the time. They contributed greatly in the 18th century to the establishment of the rights of minorities in England through the activities of the Protestant Dissenting deputies, who had the right of direct access to the monarch. Both in England and in America, the long-faced and repressive Puritan of tradition owes as much to the caricatures of opponents as to actual fact.
Worship and organization
Congregationalism has always considered preaching important, because the Word of God as declared in Scripture is regarded as constitutive of the church. Baptism and the Lord’s Supper are considered to be the only sacraments instituted by Christ. Infants are baptized, normally by sprinkling. The Lord’s Supper is normally celebrated once or twice a month and has not always been given a central place in the Congregationalist service, often following a preaching service after a brief interval during which many of the congregation leave. In recent times, the unity of sermon and sacrament as parts of the same service has been emphasized much more strongly. Traditionally, public prayer is extempore, but from the 20th century service books and set forms have increasingly been used. Since the 18th century and the work of the great Congregationalist hymn writer Isaac Watts, hymns have featured prominently in Congregational worship. The English compilation Congregational Praise (1951) worthily maintained the tradition. Congregationalists do not see the need to make the sign of the cross or to invoke the assistance of saints; Jesus Christ, they believe, is their only mediator.
Congregationalism is unique in its emphasis on the spiritual autonomy of each congregation. The congregation, however, is not thought of as any casual gathering of Christians but as a settled body, with a well-defined constitution and offices, that has ordered itself according to the New Testament’s understanding of the nature of the church. Congregationalists believe that no earthly body could be a more authentic church than a particular place that possesses the Bible, the sacraments, a properly called and appointed minister and deacons, and members who have made a genuine Christian profession. It follows that, as the church is responsible to God for its life in that place, so it must have the freedom to discern and obey God’s will for itself, with no interference from outside. Although this view respects the rights of individual conscience, it does not promote spiritual individualism; it is rather an attempt to treat the visible and corporate character of the church as concretely as possible.
It has always been recognized that this principle does not involve ecclesiastical isolation. But the nature of the precise relationship between the churches and the associations and councils through which the churches express their communion has often caused uneasy debate. In the 19th century, thinking about this relation was affected by the individualism of the age, whereas in the more centralized and mobile 20th century the positive role of councils was stressed. The authentic Congregational principle would appear to be that, whatever adaptations of organization may be necessary in changing circumstances, responsibility and the freedom to fulfill it must always be as specific and personal as possible.
According to Congregationalists, “the crown rights of the Redeemer” (Christ) are impugned whenever the state or a prelacy imposes its will on the church. Consequently, the idea of the “gathered” church is integral to Congregationalism, even though the extent to which the idea can be applied to churches with large formal memberships remains a problem for modern Congregationalists. The idea of the gathered church entails that the primary agent in church foundation is not human but divine. Rejecting the Anglican territorial conception of the church, according to which all residents of a particular neighbourhood should be counted as members, Congregationalists insist that it is the duty and privilege of the believer to discover who else in the vicinity is called by Christ and then to walk together with them in church order, which is thought of not primarily as a matter of organization but as a matter of common lifestyle. Church members are granted equal rights and are expected to exercise them in the church meeting, a regular gathering, usually monthly, that addresses matters pertaining to the particular church’s life such as admission of members and election of officers. Church meetings have not always been very vigorous, and, especially in the United States, many of their powers have been delegated to officers or committees, but efforts have been made to restore them to their important place.
Congregational ministers are ordained through acceptance for training by the churches acting together and then by the call from a particular church to act as its minister. This practice has been retained in most of the new united churches. The churches corporately set standards for training, which, particularly in the United States and Canada, is frequently conducted in interdenominational seminaries or universities. This training is open to women, as are all offices in the Congregational church, which ordained its first woman in 1917.
Until new patterns were established by mergers, nearly all Congregational churches formed associations or unions on local, provincial, or national levels. Superintendent ministers or moderators have been appointed to oversee the churches of the association, but their role is not that of diocesan bishops, since they are not regarded as the sources of ecclesiastical order and have no formal authority over independent churches. It is a Congregational principle that the service of the Word and the sacraments, rather than one’s place in a system of ecclesiastical administration, confers authority on a minister.
Churches are financed mainly by the contributions of members. There are substantial denominational funds to finance pensions and stipends for missionary work, but even these depend heavily on contributions from the churches as well as on endowments.
Congregationalism in the 21st century
Although Congregationalism has not succeeded in establishing itself as one of the major forms of churchmanship, its ideas and practices have greatly influenced the modern world. It has flourished in smaller cities and in the suburbs of larger cities, where, especially in the 19th century, it played a prominent role in civic, educational, and cultural life. Congregationalism has also been a major factor in shaping the institutions and the general culture of the United States and, to a lesser degree, of Britain and the Commonwealth, particularly in the 19th century. In the 20th century, however, Congregationalism lost much of its influence because of increasing geographic mobility, greater centralization of business organizations, and decreasing continuity of lifestyle between one generation and the next. The number of Congregational churches has also declined, and most of them are now part of the Reformed family of churches; there were roughly 2.4 million Congregationalists worldwide at the start of the 21st century. Whether what is distinctive in Congregationalism can be effectively maintained under the pressures of modern urban mobility in more centrally organized churches is still to be seen.