What was the transition from the medieval world-view to a largely secular, rational, and materialistic perspective that began in the 17th and was popularized in the 18th century called?
What was the belief that the earth was at the center of the universe and that the sun and other celestial objects revolved around the earth called?
What was the belief that the sun, not the earth, was at the center of the universe?
Who wrote 'On the Revolutions of the Heavenly Spheres'? He hoped that his heliocentric conception would offer a simpler more accurate explanation of the universe. He argued that the universe consisted of eight spheres with the sun motionless at the center and the sphere of the fixed stars at rest in the eight sphere. The movement of the stars and sun was explained by the daily rotation of the earth on its axis and the journey of the earth around the sun.
For twenty years, this man patiently concentrated on compiling a detailed record of his observations of the positions and movements of the stars and planets at Uraniborg Castle, near Copenhagen. He took on an assistant by the name of Johannes Kepler.
This man accepted Copernicus's heliocentric ideas, but rejected Copernicus by showing that the orbits of the planets around the sun were not circulr but elliptical. He also demonstrated that the speed of a planet is greater when it is closer to the sun and that planets with larger orbits revolve at a slower average velocity than those with smaller orbits.
Who was the first European to make systematic observations of the heavens by means of a telescope?
Which of the following did Galileo NOT discover? Mountains and craters on the moon, four moons revolving around Jupiter, the phases of Venus, Andromeda galaxy, sunspots
What did Galileo publish in 1610 that revealed himself as a firm proponent of Copernicus's heliocentric system? This piece of writing probably did more to make Europeans aware of the new picture of the universe than the mathematical theories of Copernicus and Kepler did.
True or False? The church openly accepted Galileo, Copernicus, and Kepler's writing in the 17th century and accepted that humans were no longer at the center of the universe and God was no longer in a specific place in it.
Who wrote 'Principia'? This man also invented Calculus, began an investigation into the composition of light, and is the only English scientist to be buried in Westminster Abbey.
True or False? In Principia, Newton's three laws were 1) every object continues in a state of rest or uniform motion in a straight line unless deflected by a force, 2) the rate of change of motion of an object is proportional to the force acting on it, and 3) to every action there is always an equal and opposite reaction.
What force did Newton discover? He explained that every object in the universe was attracted to every other object with this force that is directly proportional to the square of the distances between them.
What was Newton's conception of the universe as one huge, regulated, and uniform machine that operated according to natural laws in absolute time, space, and motion called?
Who turned against the Galenic principle that 'contraries cure' in favor of the ancient Germanic folk principle that 'like cures like.' Some historians view him as the father of modern medicine. Others have viewed him as the forerunner of both homeopathy and the holistic medicine of the postmodern era.
Who published 'On the Fabric of the Human Body' in 1543? He deviated from traditional practices by personally dissecting a body to illustrate what he was discussing.
He wrote 'On the Motion of the Heart and Blood' in 1628? He demonstrated that the heart, not the liver, was the beginning point of the circulation of blood in the body, that the same blood flows in both veins and arteries, and that the blood makes a complete circuit as it passes through the body. His theory on the circulation of the blood laid the foundation for modern physiology.
In what field did scientists like Robert Boyle (Boyle's law) and Antonie Lavoisier (system of naming elements) work in?
Who wrote 'Observations upon Experimental Philosophy' and 'Grounds of Natural Philosophy'? She did not hesitate to attack what she considered the defects of the rationalist and empiricist approaches to scientific knowledge and was especially critical of the growing belief that through science, humans would be masters of nature.
Who wrote 'Metamorphosis of the Insects of Surinam'? Her observation of insects and plants was demonstrated through the superb illustrations she made. She used sixty illustrations to show the reproductive and developmental cycles of Surinam's insect life.
Who was the most famous of the female astronomers in Germany? She became Germany's foremost astronomer at the astronomical observatory operated in Berlin by the Academy of Science.
What is the centuries-old debate about the nature of women that continued during the Scientific Revolution as those who argued for the inferiority of women found additional support in the new anatomy and medicine called? It literally means 'arguments about women.'
Who wrote 'Discourse on Method' in 1637? 'But I immediately became aware that while I was thus disposed to think that all was false, it was absolutely necessary that I who thus thought should be something; and nothing that this truth, I think, therefore I am, was so steadfast and so assured that the suppositions of the skeptics, to whatever extreme they might be carried out, could not avail to shake it, I concluded that I might without scruple accept it as being the first principle of the philosophy I was thinking.'
What was Descartes's principle of the separation of mind and matter (and mind and body) that enabled scientists to view matter as something separate from themselves that could be investigated with reason called?
Descartes has rightly been called the father of modern __ because he believed that human beings could understand the world by the principles inherent in mathematical thinking. This was the system of thought based on the belief that human reason and experience are the chief sources of knowledge.
What is the practice of relying on observation and experiment called? Francis Bacon urged scientists to proceed from the particular to the general.
Descartes's emphasis on deduction and mathematical order complemented Bacon's stress on experiment and induction. Sir Isaac Newton synthesized them into a single scientific methodology by united Bacon's empiricism with Descartes's rationalism. What is this process called?
Which scientific society received abundant state support and remained under government control? This society was to continue its practical work to benefit both 'the king and the state.' English Royal Society or French Royal Academy of Sciences?
Who's book 'Ethics Demonstrated in the Geometrical Manner' was published in 1677? He was unwilling to accept the implications of Descartes's ideas, especially the separation of mind and matter and the apparent separation of an infite God from the finite world of matter. God was not simply the creator of the universe; he was the universe. This was a form of pantheism or monism. In using reason, people can find true happiness; their true freedom comes when they understand the order and necessity of nature and achieve detachment from passing interests.
Who's book 'Pensees' (Thoughts) was published in 1669? Humans were frail creatures, often deceived by their senses, misled by reason, and battered by their emotions. And yet they were beings whose very nature involved thinking: 'Man is but a reed, the weakest in nature; but he is a thinking reed.' To him, God is a reasonable bet; it is worthwile to assume that God exists. If he does, then we win all; if he does not, we lose nothing.
What is the 18th century intellectual movement that stressed the application of reason and the scientific method to all aspects of life called? The French version attacked traditional religion, advocated religious toleration, denounced slavery, and used reason to liberate human beings from their prejudices.
Who wrote 'Plurality of Worlds' as the secretary of the French Royal Academy of Science from 1691 to 1741? 'There came on the scene a certain German, Copernicus, who made short work of all those circles, all those solid skies, which the ancients had pictured to themselves. The former he abolished; the latter, he broke in pieces. Fired with the noble zeal of a true astronomer, he took the earth and spun it very far away from the center of the universe, where it had been installed, and in that center he put the sun, which had a far better title to the honor.'
What is a doubtful or questioning attitude, especially about religion, called? Pierre Bayle attacked superstition, religion intolerance, and dogmatism. He said that compelling people to believe a particular set of religious ideas was wrong: it simply created hypocrites and in itself was contrary to what religion should be about.
Who discovered Australia and New Zealand? He wrote a book called 'Travels'.
What was the belief that no culture is superior to another because culture is a matter of custom, not reason, and derives its meaning from the group holding it called?
One group espoused __, or the belief in separate human species, while others argued for monogenesis, the belief in one human species characterized by racial variations.
What were intellectuals of the 18th century Enlightenment who believed in applying a spirit of rational criticism to all things, including religion and politics, and who focused on improving and enjoying this world, rather than on the afterlife called? Most of these leaders were French and the recognized capital of the Enlightenment was Paris.
What is the quality of being sophisticated and having wide international experience called? The Enlightenment was this type of movement.
Who wrote 'The Spirit of the Laws' in 1748? He distinguished three kinds of governments: republics for small states based on citizen involvement, monarchies for middle-sized states that was grounded in the ruling class's adherence to law, and despotism for large empires dependent on fear to inspire obedience.
What is the doctrine enunciated by Montesquieu in the 18th century that separate executive, legislative, and judicial powers serve to limit and control each other called?
Who wrote 'Treatise on Toleration' in 1763? He argued that religious toleration had created no problems for England and Holland and remined governments that 'all men are rothers under God.'
What is the belief in God as the creator of the universe who, after setting it in motion, ceased to have any direct involvement in it and allowed it to run accoring to its own natural laws called?
What did Denis Diderot write? Its purpose was to 'change the general way of thinking.' It became a major weapon of the philosophes' crusade against the old French society. Its price drastically reduced, dramatically increasing its sales and making it available to doctors, clergy, teachers, lawyers, and military officers.
David Hume helped promote what is now called 'social sciences.' New natural laws were being discovered.
The leader of this group was Francois Quesnay. They claimed they would discover the natural economic laws that governed human society. Their first principle was that land constituted the only source of wealth and that wealth itself could be increased only by agricultural because all other economic activities were unproductive and sterile.
'Let (them) do (as they please).' This was an eocnomic doctrine that holds that an economy is best served when the government does not interfere but allows the economy to self-regulate according to the forces of supply and demand.
Who wrote 'The Wealth of Nations' in 1776? He condemned the mercantilist use of tariffs to protect home industries. He claimed that gold and silver were not the source of a nation's true wealth, but labor constituted the true wealth of a nation. He also believed that the state should not interfere in economic matters.
True or False? Adam Smith believed that the state had only three basic functions: to protect society from invasion, defend individuals from injustice and oppression, and keep up certain public works, such as roads and canals, that private individuals could not afford.
What is the idea that government should not interfere in the workings of the economy called? Adam Smith and Physiocrats laid the foundation for this 19th century philosophy.
Who wrote 'System of Nature' in 1770? Human beings were simply machines; God was a product of the human mind and was unncessary for leading a moral life. People needed only reason to live in this world. He shoked his fellow philosophes with his uncompromising atheism.
Who wrote 'The Social Contract' in 1762? He tried to harmonize individual liberty with governmental authority. This book advocated an agreement on the part of an entire society to be governed by its general will. It is the ultimate statement of participatory democracy.
Rousseau also wrote 'Emile' and was a precursor to this intellectual movement. It was a 19th century intellectual and artistic movement that rejected the emphasis on reason of the Enlightenment. Instead, followers stressed the importance of intuition, feeling, emotion, and imagination.
What is the belief in the social, political, and economic equality of the sexes called?
Who wrote 'Vindication of the Rights of Woman' in 1792? She pointed out two views of women held by Enlightenment thinkers. To argue that women must obey men was contrary to the beliefs of the same individuals that a system based on the arbitrary power of monarchs over their subjects was wrong. The Enlightenment was based on the ideal that reason is innate in all human beings; if women have reason, then they are entitled to the same rights that men have.
True or False? Diderot and Rousseau were lower-middle class.
What were the gatherings of philosophes and other notables to discuss the ideas of the Enlightenment called? They were so called from the elegant drawing rooms where they met.
What was the 18th century artistic movement that emphasized grace, gentility, lightness, and charm called?
What was the late 18th century artistic movement called that emerged in France and sought to recapture the dignity and simplicity of the Classical style of ancient Greece and Rome? Jacques-Louis David's Oath of the Horatii is an example.
What two German composers, born in Saxony in the same year (1685), perfected techniques of the Baroque musical style?
What two composers moved the musical center of Europe from Italy and Germany to the Austrian Empire? They represented the new Classical Era of music (1750-1830)
True or False? The English are credited with establishing the modern novel as the chief vehicle for fiction writing.
What is the lietary and artistic culture of the educated and wealthy ruling classes called?
What was the unofficial written and unwritten culture of the masses called? It was traditionally passed down orally and centered on public and group activies such as festivals.
What is the period leading up to the beginning of Lent called? It was a time of great indulgence, including hearty consumption of food, heavy drinking, and intense sexual activity.
What was an absolute monarchy in which the ruler follows the principles of the Enlightenment by introducing reforms for the improvement of society called? They allowed freedom of speech and the press, permitted religious toleration, expanded education, and rule in accordance with the laws.
What was the distribution of power among several states such that no single nation can dominate or interfere with the interests of another called?
What is the principle that a nation should act on the basis of its long-term interests and not merely to further dynastic interests of its ruling family called? Frederick II and William Pitt the Elder are examples of this emerging concept.