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yoga and psychology
SUNY series in Religious Studies
Harold Coward, editor
M E M O RY.H A R O L D C OWA R D yoga and psychology L A N G U A G E . A N D M Y S T I C I S M S TAT E U N I V E R S I T Y O F N E W Y O R K P R E S S .
BF51 . 1875–1961. Pataäjali. Yoga and psychology : language. I. East and West. paper) — ISBN 0-7914-5500-9 (pbk. Jung. 4. C. Psychology and religion. cm. For information. Sigmund. 2. recording. NY 12207 Production. Laurie Searl Marketing. Suite 700. paper) 1. 1856–1939. 3. and mysticism / Harold Coward. photocopying. 6. Albany. memory. (Carl Gustav). electrostatic. Freud. No part of this book may be stored in a retrieval system or transmitted in any form or by any means including electronic. Title. ISBN 0-7914-5499-1 (alk.C69 2002 181’. Yoga. Series.45—dc21 2002017732 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 . or otherwise without the prior permission in writing of the publisher. address State University of New York Press 90 State Street. magnetic tape. Harold G. 5. Yogasåtra. Jennifer Giovani-Giovani Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Coward. G.—(SUNY series in religious studies) Includes bibliographical references and index. mechanical. : alk.Published by State University of New York Press Albany © 2002 State University of New York All rights reserved Printed in the United States of America No part of this book may be used or reproduced in any manner whatsoever without written permission. II. p.
V. Murti .to Professor T. R.
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and Yoga on Memory Where Jung Draws the Line in His Acceptance of Patañjali’s Yoga Mysticism in Jung and Patañjali’s Yoga The Limits of Human Nature in Yoga and Transpersonal Psychology 51 61 71 83 . Part II Yoga and Western Psychology 11 21 41 5 6 7 8 Freud.contents Preface 1 Introduction Part I 2 3 4 Yoga and Language ix 1 ¯ Agama in the Yoga Sutras of Patañjali ¯ The Yoga Psychology Underlying Bhartrhari’s Vakyapadi ¯ ¯ya . ´ Yoga in the Vaira gya-S ataka of Bhartrhari ¯ . Jung.
viii YOGA AND PSYCHOLOGY 9 Conclusion Notes Glossary of Sanskrit Terms Index 91 93 107 113 .
and Ornstein) have been influenced by or reject Patañjali’s Yoga. Jung. This book explores the fundamental contribution of Patañjali’s Yoga Sutras to the ¯ philosophy of language and theology of revelation of Bhartrhari (c. My thinking was further developed and tested in a 1985 article published in the Indian Philosophical Quarterly. 1990. we overcome our finite limitations. the classical statement of Eastern Yoga. philosophically. relatively obscure. Motilal Banarsidass. which I have put together com. and Buddhist theology. and The Philosophy of the Grammarians. are foun¯ dational for Hindu. 1980. Tart. 1986. such as individual egos. 1996. 600 CE) in part . namely. and Transpersonalists such as Washburn. 200 CE). The lines of analysis in parts I and II have been gradually maturing over the past twenty years. which is little known outside India. and in part II analyzes where Western psychology (Freud. Indeed. and theologically limited or flawed in nature and thus not perfectible. ix . My thinking was tested out in two early chapters of a 1976 Twayne book on Bhartrhari that remained . through our yogic religious practice. The part II analysis results in a key insight. we will be reborn over and over until. and spiritual practice. while Patañjali’s Yoga (and Eastern thought generally) maintains the opposite. 1990— because I was not completely sure of my scholarship on the point. and John Hick to varying degrees of acceptance by transpersonal psychologists such as Washburn. I am now confident of my scholarship on Patañjali’s Yoga contributions to Bhartr hari. I. As a result of feedback from these earlier publications and some revision. Jung. for Yoga and the East. The argument in part I that Patañjali’s Yoga Sutras were fundamental ¯ to Bhartr hari’s philosophy of language did not appear in my earlier books on that . topic—The Sphota Theory of Language. Jaina.preface Patañjali’s Yoga Sutras (c. Tart. that there is a crucial difference between Eastern and Western thought with regard to how limited or perfectible human nature is—the West maintaining that we as humans are psychologically. and Ornstein. and achieve union with the divine. Different Western responses to this Eastern claim are detailed in part II from complete rejection by Freud. Princeton University Press. philosophy. circulating mainly among literature of India scholars.
and how a fundamental disagreement about human nature has appeared through that analysis. parts I and II represent a culmination of my thinking on the significance of Patañjali’s Yoga Sutras over the past 25 years. (My book on Murti will appear in The Builders of Indian Philosophy series published by Manohar in 2002.x P R E FAC E pletely for the first time in part I. R. Pro¯ fessor T. and a new chapter on the transpersonal psychologists. V.) I wish to thank Vicki Simmons for her assistance in the preparation of this book. Therefore. as scholars we must remain critical but open. and theology. It is the Yoga book I have ¯ wanted to write since I spent two years in Banaras (Varanasi) in 1972 and 1973. That this point. central to part II. It is this debate that is at the root of the disagreement as to the limits of human nature between Yoga and Western psychology. All of this writing has been reworked a couple of times to highlight the major point of difference between Patañjali’s Yoga and Western thinking on the limits of human nature—an insight which has only gradually clarified itself in my thinking but which I am now ready to engage fully. . my thinking on how Patañjali’s Yoga has influenced Western psychology. reading the Yoga Sutras line by line in traditional guru-sishya style with my teacher. In part II. Taken together. Hall. 1985). My position is that good comparative scholarship requires that we examine such claims within the presuppositions of their own worldviews. by taking Kant’s view of the limits of human nature and experience to be absolute. 1999) in which he devotes chapters 15 and 16 to dismissing Eastern claims of union with the divine as “metaphorical” rather than “literal” in nature. has developed and been tested in articles published in Philosophy East and West. In my view. which are also shared by some Western mystics. this is an unfair reductionism of Eastern claims. The Fifth Dimension: An Exploration of the Spiritual Realm (Oneworld.K. is timely is evidenced by John Hick’s most recent book. Chapters 3 and 4 are based on chapters 1 and 2 in my book Bhartrhari © 1976 G. and that there is no “theological or philosophical helicopter” that will get us above all biases or presuppositions so as to determine which are absolute or right and which are wrong. Murti. a chapter from my SUNY book (Jung and Eastern Thought. philosophy. .
¯ Eliade states that Yoga is one of the four basic motifs of all Indian thought. the eminent Russian scholar of Buddhism. and study the impact of Yoga on transpersonal psychology. H. ¯ cal processes of human nature (e. T. it is noteworthy that during the past decades contemporary philosophy and psychology have refocused attention on “mind”2 and “consciousness”3—topics that occupied the central focus in Yoga theory and practice. 1 . . conceptions such as karma (memory traces from previous ac. yoga teachers abound in most communities of Europe and North America. So also there are certain common conceptions about the psychologi. In this book we will show the role Yoga played in the classical Indian philosophy of language of Bhartrhari. In most cases these modern presentations of yoga are updated versions of some aspect of the Yoga Sutras of Patañjali. In bookstores the self-help sections contain numerous “yoga” titles. From a comparative perspective. examine Yoga’s influence on Carl Jung’s psychology. Thus the comparative explorations with Western psychology are timely. observe parallels with Sigmund Freud’s conception of how memory works.1 Among the classical schools of Indian philosophy. YOGA IN INDIAN THOUGHT Within Indian thought. the basic presentation of the Indian Yoga school dating from ¯ 200 to 300 CE. From exercise programs to meditation training. observes that Yogic trance (sama dhi ) and Yogic courses for the training of the mind in the achievement of moks a ¯ .¯ tions or thoughts) and samsara (rebirth) are taken as basic to all Jaina.1 introduction Yoga is a very popular word in the West these days. Jadunath Sinha supports this contention in his finding that the psychological conception of yogic intuition (pratibha ) ¯ is found in all schools with the exception of the Ca rva ka and the Mi ma msa . and Hindu schools. Stcherbatsky.4 Mircea ¯ ¯ ¯ ¯. the existence of cognitive traces or samskaras) which are seen to exist in and through the specific differences of the various schools as a kind of commonly understood psychology.g. Buddhist. the Yoga school has been widely accepted as foundational as far as psychological processes are concerned..
as well as the clinging to one’s own ego. is all that remains.. is also ultimately unreal.e. In the Yoga view. leaving only bare objective experience (i. This discriminative capacity (buddhi) is not learned but is an innate aspect of our psyche and has the capacity to reveal our true nature. the sources of all our troubles are the karmic seeds (memory traces) of past actions or thoughts. ¯ tions (samskaras). Yoga predated Freud by several hundred years in the analysis of the unconscious. Then there is the higher function of the mind in making discriminative decisions as to whether or not to act on the impulses that are constantly flooding one’s awareness. This occurs when. But if these troublesome passions are to be purged. but only immediate intuition. Since all egoity has been overcome. for removing conscious and unconscious desires. These may all be thought of as “learned” if we use behaviouristic terminology. we negate and root out the polluting passions (klis t a .. overcome the subject-object duality by resolving all objectivity into an absolute subject (i. by our discriminative choices. In this respect. although interesting. along with the accompanying ego-sense from the psyche. high-energy luminous material (sattvic citta).e. for example. they must be fully exposed to view. Once this is achieved by disciplined self-effort.2 YOGA AND PSYCHOLOGY or nirvan a appear in virtually all Indian schools of thought. which may be translated as “all ego and desiring is blown out”). materialistic or sensuous desire. There is the function of the mind in integrating and coordinating the input of sensory impressions and the resurgent memories of past thoughts and ac. All experience is transcendent of individuality. it is clear that traditional Yoga psychology gives ample recognition to the darker side of humans—the shadow consciousness. According to Yoga. Nirvan a. transcendent consciousness is not immaterial but is composed of high-quality. What is significant is that Yoga psychology finds the essence of human nature to be at the transcendent level of consciousness. Peace and purity of mind come only when the distractability of our nature is controlled by the radical step of purging the passions. pure or transcendent consciousness. Thus. is not important. as it is called in Yoga. Brahman). The Hindus. and it is from this source that the following overview is presented. since the notion of ego. no subject-object awareness. Once the latter is rooted out. the metaphysical speculation. Yoga conceives of human cognition on various levels.. or therapies. heaped up in the unconscious. or storehouse consciousness. It is simply a by-product of my selfish desiring. ¯. I or me. although this is described differently by the various schools of Indian thought. and the final level of human nature.5 Probably the most com¯. The Buddhists seem to go in the opposite direction and do away with all subjectivity. . the level of egoic consciousness is transcended. plete presentation of this traditional Indian psychology is to be found in the Yoga Sutras of Patañjali. karmas) from our unconscious until it is totally purified of their distracting restlessness—their pulling and pushing of us in one direction and then another.6 ¯ Yoga starts with an analysis of ordinary experience. and tainted by ignorance. The various kinds of Yogic meditation are simply different practical disciplines. For our present purpose. the former by necessity also disappears. there is no duality. At the ego-awareness level of consciousness. where ego and unconscious desires have been excised. This is characterized by a sense of restlessness caused by the distracting influences of our desires.
Jaina. The ultimate practices are: (1) beginners spend brief periods of fixed concentration (dharana ) upon an object (usually an image which represents an aspect of the di¯ . celibacy. and the Word was God.g. For Patañjali there are five prerequisite practices and three ultimate practices.g. has power to remove the obstructing ego desires until the transcendent stands fully revealed. (4) controlled deepening of respiration (pra na yama) to calm the mind.g. study and chanting of scriptures. The power of the chosen mantra to remove obstructions is enhanced by the intensity and duration of the chanting.. Siva.¯ ´ ¯´ vine that appeals to one. Tantric. I s vara. hearing.. Four levels of sama dhi.g. chosen for one by one’s teacher (guru). meditation upon the Lord). “In the beginning was the Word. According to the Yoga Sutras. The divine ¯ image is only an instrument to aid in the direct experience of the transcendent.7 The Yoga of the word assumes that the scriptural word and the divine are mutually intertwined. e. may be realized through repeated practice of yogic meditation. was not possible for most people until the final stage of life in retirement from worldly affairs and withdrawal to a forest ashram. Taoist. The guru chooses the scriptural word best suited to remove current obstructions (karmas) in the mind of the devotee. I s vara. (3) Sama dhi oc¯ curs when continuous meditation upon the object loses all sense of subject-object separation. Thus the important inclusion in this book of Yoga’s involvement with language.” The word is therefore filled with divine power and when meditated upon by repeated chanting is able to remove obstructions of consciousness. concentration upon the object is held for longer periods (dhyana). equanimity in the face of life’s trials. Kali). The final state (nirvicara sama dhi) occurs when all obstructing ego desires have been ¯ ¯ purged from the psyche. although there are many other yogic schools ¯ of disciplined meditation from which one could choose (e. non-stealing.. In Eastern psychology it is generally accepted that the chanting of a special scriptural word or phrase (mantra). (2) as one becomes more expert. and ¯ ¯ ¯ touch) from distracting one’s mind (pratyahara) by focusing them on an object or point ¯ ¯ of meditation. and a state of direct intuition or becoming one with the object is achieved. and (5) keeping senses (e. sight. Hatha. Meditation of the sort prescribed by the Yoga Sutras is esoteric in nature.. truthfulness. Chanting may . any image will do. which is now like a perfectly clear window to the aspect of ´ ¯´ the divine (e. Another and much simpler yoga was and still is practiced by the masses—the yoga of the word. and absence of avarice) to get rid of bad habits. even in traditional India. requires ¯ the supervision of a teacher (guru) who has achieved perfection. The prerequisite practices include: (1) self-restraints (Yamas: non-violence.I N T RO D U C T I O N 3 Let us stay with Patañjali’s Yoga Sutras. and the sense ¯ of subject-object separation begins to disappear from one’s perception. and is a full-time occupation which. and Zen). Krishna. (2) good habits (niyamas) to be instilled (washing of body and mind. Through these yogic practices one has weakened the hold of the egocentric memories and desires (karmas) from the conscious and unconscious levels of one’s psyche. and the discovery of the true self has begun. at which point the image is no longer needed. contentment with whatever comes. and the Word was with God. perhaps Christ) which has served as the object of meditation. Siva or. each more ¯ purified than the last. very much as stated in John’s Gospel 1:1. for a Westerner. (3) body postures (asanas) such as the lotus position to keep ¯ the body controlled and motionless during meditation.
life equals death. and sama dhi.4 YOGA AND PSYCHOLOGY be either aloud or silent. It is this traditional Eastern Yoga of the . and then when the power of science and technology is placed in our hands. love equals hate. Yoga’s critique of modern life is that if the transcendent is not taken as absolute. A detailed exploration of this practice is offered in part I. The radically transcendent Eastern view of human nature is also open to the misinterpretation that “all is ONE” means nothing is good or evil. the guru prescribes a new mantra better suited to tackle the remaining. With proper Yoga. It is also this larger experience of human nature that is glimpsed in the psychedelic drug experience. rationality. The esoteric knowing of the transcendent mystical vision is open to dangerous distortion when placed in the hands of one who has not yet controlled the darker animal desires and power-hungry ego and who is not under the supervision of a guru. then humankind is no longer seen as splendid or divine but simply “raw nature”—on par with minerals and rocks—to be manipulated for purposes of economic. a vision of the lord is experienced. ¯ words are experienced as having the power to remove ignorance (avidya ). The ways in which Jung has been influenced by Yoga. When this latter aspect is ignored. he is acclaimed by many from the East as expressing their understanding of human experience.9 Carl Jung is one modern Western thinker whose insights seem to be able to encompass most of the Yoga and Western psychologies without committing the academic sin of too much reductionism on one side or the other. it will not enslave us in the endless attempt to satisfy our lower desires. First our lower nature must be controlled and our higher nature actualized. a middle road between the extremes seems indicated. and personal selfishness. or union with the transcendent. along with critical assess- . This is what is felt to be lacking in contemporary Jewish and Christian religion. But there are dangers here for the freeing of a person from his or her rigid ego encapsulation is only beneficial if the shadow or unconscious dimension of one’s nature is also known and controlled. political.8 As usual. Although a thoroughly Western psychologist. The person is “freed” from rational encapsulation. word that is behind the mantra chanting that is common throughout traditional Hinduism and Buddhism. Rudolf Otto argues for an analysis of humans which would include their feelings. the psyche is like a purified or cleaned window fully revealing the divine as a direct intuition to the devotee. The more obstacles in the mind to be overcome. As the first obstructions are removed. When the chanting removes the final obstacles. as clearly has happened in the modern world. Much of the current Western fascination for the East is with its much expanded view of human nature. is realized. more subtle obstructions. only to be made captive to the darker side of one’s animal passions. and is today encountered in North America or Europe in the chanting of “Hare Krishna” and the teaching of meditation mantras by Transcendental Meditation. reveal truth ¯ (dharma) and realize release or salvation (moks a). and supra-rationality or transcendent consciousness. disastrous results occur. The fascination of these practices is that they provide a technique which enables one to break out of the too-narrow Western rational-empirical view of human nature into which the whole society has been conditioned. but a psychosomatic unity of the two. A human being is neither all spiritual nor all animal desires. Two Western scholars attempt to champion such a balanced approach to psychology. the more repetitions are needed.
The chanting of Vedic verses or syllables (e. including mantra chanting. The treatment offered by both Bhartrhari and Patañjali is the renunci. untouched by obscuring karma. I s vara. In both the poem ¯ . such as ¯ . ´ and in Yoga psychology. chapter 4 shows that Yoga psychology is also consistent with Bhartrhari’s poem . ¯´ ignorance. is trustwor¯´ thy? Because. The psychological mechanism by which such mantra chanting works ¯ to achieve release (moks a) is given detailed explanation in Yoga Sutras I: 42–44 and is . A more detailed preview of each chapter follows. sva dhya ya. By ´ ¯´ intense devotional concentration on the Divine (I s vara for Patañjali. Not only our ordi¯ nary everyday encounter with language but more especially our experience of scripture is analyzed. lust. ¯ who is completely free from karmic obscuration and has directly “seen” the things ¯´ spoken of in the Vedas. says the Yoga Sutras. Just as Bhartrhari’s philosophy of language is shown to assume Patañjali’s Yoga psy. O V E RV I E W O F E A C H C H A P T E R Chapter 2 examines the notion of agama or how language functions as a valid com¯ munication of knowledge as presented in Patañjali’s Yoga Sutras. egoism ¯ ´ (asmita ). at the beginning of each cycle of the cosmos. identified by ¯ . or concentrated study. The five types of ordinary experience (citta vrtti). the Veda. supports the In¯ dian view of how language functions and continues to influence modern Western thinkers such as Carl Jung and the Transpersonal Psychologists. and clinging to life (abhinives a) are shown to ¯ ¯ . chology. ´ the Vairagya-S ataka.¯ ize release from the cycle of samsara (birth-death-rebirth). egotistical desire. Taken together. end in suffering. hatred or clinging to life. or Philosophy of Word and Sentence. Yoga and Western Psychology. the seer/speaker of the Veda. In chapter 3 Patañjali’s Yoga psychology is shown to be assumed by Bhartrhari (c. passion (raga). disgust (dves a). The concepts out¯ ¯ lined in Yoga Sutra III: 17 are shown to provide the psychological processes necessary ¯ for Bhartrhari’s language theory to function in everyday life.. How this speech works is given detailed study. be achieved. provides the psycho¯ ¯ s ¯ logical mechanism by which that release (called by Bhartr hari ´abdapurvayoga) may . release from rebirth may be realized. the ultimate state of moks a or the realization of release. described in chapter 2. ation of worldly desires by the concentration of citta or consciousness through Yoga.g. And when it comes to . the kles as or ordinary experiences of ignorance (avidya ). AUM) as mantra is a means by which language may function as a yoga to remove obscuring karma until it is all purged from consciousness and release is realized. Siva for Bhartrhari). is described in the Yoga Sutras as a uniquely pure purus a. Patañjali in the Yoga Sutras are given exposition in Bhartrhari’s poetry. as systematized by Patañjali in his Yoga Sutras. How do we know that Hindu scripture. Thus I s vara has always been free and yet always in the world for the purpose of helping the rest of us to real. it was spoken by the “Original Speaker. Patañjali’s practices of . 500 CE) in his Vakyapadi ya. .I N T RO D U C T I O N 5 ments of where he draws the line in his acceptance of Yoga are offered in part II. . parts I and II offer an assessment of how the traditional Yoga psychology of India. .” I s vara.
In ancient Yoga. had transcended the limitations of the individual ego and realized omniscience and release (moks a). that accomplished persons. as well as to the extent to which the processes of memory and motivation can be transcended. . the result would not be the recovery of memories from this and previous lives (the Yoga claim). as. but there is disagreement between Yoga and Freud as to the degree that this choice process is free or determined. to Jung. this claim is nothing more than the psychological projection of an idea which has no foundation in human experience. Jung is influenced by the Yoga notion of karma in important ways. But both Yoga and Freud agree that the bulk of this memory/motivation psychological process occurs within the unconscious. ¯ or samskara. constituents of consciousness. function in various karmic states. to the extent that the removal of ego is achieved. Both Yoga and Freud agree that memory and motivation are parts of a single psychic process which also embodies choice or selection. such as the Buddha. we turn in part II to explicit influences or implicit parallels of Yoga in modern Western psychology. for example in the Yoga claim that the individual ego can be completely deconstructed and transcended and some form of universal consciousness achieved. or . Jung argues. which would have as its neural basis a significant tamas. This fundamental difference between Yoga . perception. This. Yet this is precisely the Yoga claim. fits well with the modern idea of growth at the synaptic spines. but rather the person falling unconscious on the floor. Carl Jung seems to chart a middle course between Yoga and Freud. However. according . as resulting from repetitions of a particular memory trace. namely. and the no¯ tion of karma sparked the formation of Jung’s archetype idea. perhaps parallel to the enlarged dendritic spines of modern neuro-physiology. However. It is suggested that Freud’s theorizing and Eccles’s experimentation on memory and motivation may well serve as the modern ex. or habit patterns. along with Freud. in Patañjali’s time. denies that the unconscious could ever be totally overcome or transcended. The Yogic notion of vasanas. and knowledge offered by Patañjali’s Yoga and Carl Jung’s Analytical Psychology but focuses on the places where Jung draws the line in his acceptance of Yoga. ¯ ¯ . ¯ planation of the neuro-physiological character of karmic samskaras and vasana s—an ex¯ ¯ planation which. involved a long discussion as to how the gunas. For Jung.6 YOGA AND PSYCHOLOGY Leaving India’s traditional world of classical philosophy and psychology. Although Jung remains resolutely Western and. ¯ posed of nothing but obscuring samskaras (memory traces) and must be transcended for true knowledge and release (moks a). Jung read the Yoga Sutras. parallels are noted between the Yoga conception of karma and the thinking of Freud and Jung on memory. the most important being Jung’s complete rejection of the Yoga contention that the ego-sense which memories produce is com. While Jung was strongly influenced by Yoga psychology during the 1920s and 1930s. Jung provides for collective memory and motivation from the unconscious in the form of the archetypes and allows for free choice in his requirement that the archetype be creatively developed by each individual within his or her own ego-consciousness. or physical structure component. he is critical of the Yoga failure to distinguish adequately between philosophy and psychology. In chapter 5. Chapter 6 gives detailed explanations of the psychological processes of memory. three differences between Jung and Yoga are identified. the storing of a memory trace was described as a latent deposit of karma. leads directly to Yoga intuition’s over-reaching of itself.
Krishna. of imageless mystical experience—becoming one with the divine that is beyond or behind the image or object. and Superego. Four levels of increasingly pure mystical experience when ´ focused on an image (e. Alan Roland. or “metaphorical. and theology?11 Chapter 8 continues this discussion as to the different assessment of the limits of human nature in Yoga when compared with modern Western thought. By contrast. While Washburn goes further than the structural-hierarchial paradigms of Piaget and Kohlberg and simplifies Freud’s Id.” as John Hick suggests in his most recent book. According to his Yoga psychology. the limiting individual ego has to be totally transcended. Ego. according to Patañjali. a “we-self ” as he calls it. Chapter 7 begins by defining mysticism so as to avoid current misinterpretations of mysticism as something “misty. which is explored in chapter 7. and that indeed is the goal of Patañjali’s Yoga practice. For this to happen. mystical experience has been experienced by the great mystics of all religions as something like sensory perception—only more direct and more vivid! For Patañjali’s Yoga. mysticism is a case of intuition or supersensuous perception (pratibha ) from which distorting emotions ¯ have been purged by disciplined meditation. in contrast to the limited “I-self ” of modern Western experience. perception. This difference. followed by the ultiI´ mate mystical experience. in contrast to the more open approach of transpersonal psychologists such as Charles Tart or Robert Ornstein. While Carl Jung. Jung differs from Yoga in that he never leaves the object or the experiencing ego. as Yoga psychology claims. While modern Western philosophers such as Bertrand Russell have attempted to dismiss mysticism as merely subjective emotion. is profound for its implication as to whether mystical experience is a full and “literal” experience of the divine. The chapter concludes with a consideration of the argument by the contemporary Western philosopher John Hick for the necessity of an ego-limited human nature. Siva) are identified. Like Jung. Michael Washburn is shown to attempt to bridge Eastern and Western thought. even in mystical experience.. goes further in the Yoga direction by adding a psycho-social analysis showing that Indians living in extended families have an extended sense of self. psychology. a cross) as the point of focus for individuation of the unconscious archetype into a conscious symbol. Washburn. much as Patañjali’s Yoga suggests.” vague. or emotional. and knowledge. . a New York psychiatrist. the major cause of obscuring emotion is the individual ego (ahamkara). with various levels of impurity of the mystical vision being caused by obscuring emotions not yet purged from the perception. like Jung before him. mystical experience is a case of the direct supersensuous perception of reality. In Yoga. also begins with an object (e.g.10 It is also important for an assessment as to the limits of human nature: can we as humans be perfected or actualized beyond the finite ego limits accepted by most Western philosophy. The Yoga analysis achieves depths of sophistication beyond ¯ anything known in the West. especially the transpersonal psychologists.g. Patañjali’s claim is just the opposite. remains resolutely Western in his claim that the limitations of ego-awareness can never be totally transcended.. ¯s vara. in his analysis of mystical experience. This “we-self ” has permeable boundaries and is open to expansion outward to include both nature and the divine.I N T RO D U C T I O N 7 and Jung in the assessment of the limits of human nature is explored in chapter 6 in terms of memory.
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Part I yoga and language .
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both structuralism and feminism see word use in the past to be an alien system weighing down human consciousness. Today the question being asked is.2 ¯ Agama in the Yoga Sutras of Patañjali ¯ As humans. Even to criticize its limitations. sometimes to the extent of negating it. we have to use language. saying “yes a ¯ to the Vedas”/Heteradox. For many today it seems that the comfortable “dwelling house of language” has become Nietzsche’s “prison-house of language. and when this is understood by the hearer. The obscuring or revealing power of words was well recognized in the Indian speculations upon language. “How neutral or unbiased is the word communication process?” In modern thought. we live and move and have our being in our use of words. question. saying “no to the Vedas”) division of the schools of Indian philosophy is predicated upon the degree of revealing power allowed to words. Aristotle established the classical Western conception of humanity as the beings who have language (logos). Although animals can use signs and sounds to signal one another. and at the same time to be aware of what he or she is thinking and speaking.2 To begin.”1 Implicit in all of this is a return to the awareness of language as power—power to obscure or to reveal. the Yoga Su tra’s analysis of the revealing (and obu ¯ u ¯ scuring) power of ordinary words will be examined. particularly the words of the Veda. When a speaker makes use of words to convey the meaning of something not present on the scene. Indeed the major ¯ stika/nastika (Orthodox. This second aspect of language is I´ 11 . Thus an essential point of focus for the study of any school of thought is: “How do ordinary words and the special scriptural words reveal or obscure reality?” Implied within that question is the further. language functions. Next the special spiritual power of ¯s vara’s words (scriptural words) will be studied. “Is the revealing power of words a way of salvation or release?” The focus of this chapter is upon the way in which these two questions are answered in Patañjali’s Yoga Su tra. and perhaps more crucial. it would seem that humanity alone possesses the ability to think and speak.
confused or barren in knowledge. that knowledge is transferred via the hearing of the spoken word to the mind of the listener. ¯ ¯ (anumana). or a verbal communication. the authority of Verbal Cognition ¯´ fails. in the wake of at´ . ¯ u ¯ T H E P OW E R O F O R D I N A R Y W O R D S Does ordinary or everyday word-use reveal or obscure reality? Do such words convey knowledge? These questions are addressed in Yoga Sutras I: 7. and speaks of things which cannot be believed. Words convey knowledge if they are true and not deceptive or confused. ference). as a way of release. as the Yoga Sutras are not usually thought of as championing scripu ¯ ture. .7 All of this is clearly exemplified in the case of a true teacher.4 an accurate assessment is needed of the ¯ ¯. When the speaker has neither perceived nor inferred the object. as sources of valid knowledge (pramana). But it does not fail in the original speaker [Is vara] with reference to either the 5 object of perception or of inference. if it is not deceptive. When a clear-minded person speaks of something that has been seen or in¯ ferred. his commentary as follows: An object perceived or inferred by a competent [trustworthy. role of word and scripture (agama) in the Yoga Sutras and its commentaries. trustworthy person. Such a mind is found in a trustworthy or competent person (apta). This requires that the speaker have a purified mind. as well as being skilled and compassionate in the passing on of knowledge. kara’s teaching 3 ´ Vya sa-bhas ya and to Gerald Larson’s suggestion that the core of San ¯ ¯. To succeed in ¯ gama. or means of valid knowledge (perception and in¯. and verbal communication (agama) has taken place. a mind cleansed of karmic obscuration. Vacaspati Mis ra ¯ ¯ ´ points out in his gloss that the essential requirement for ¯ gama to take place is that the a speaker be an apta—a competent. The essential aspects of this definition are repeated again by Vyasa in his discussion of ¯ truthfulness as one of the Yamas described in Yoga Sutra II: 29.6 The answer of Patañjali and Vya sa to the question. “Do ordinary or everyday words ¯ convey knowledge?” is clear. u ¯ Veracity consists in thought and word being in accord with facts. However. A gama is defined by Vyasa in ¯ ¯. a mind that does not selfishly twist in the telling of what has been seen or inferred. ¯ pta] man is described a by him in words with the intention of transferring his knowledge to another. or meditation upon scripture. heard and inferred as such. the teacher must perceive reality (the object) clearly . along with perception (pratyaksa) and inference ¯ . Speech is uttered for the purpose of transferring one’s knowledge to another. is really a Vedantinization of Samkhya-Yoga. tention being given to the Vivarana sub-commentary (attributed to Sankara) on the .12 YOGA AND PSYCHOLOGY of special interest. Speech and mind corresponds to what has been seen. Sutra I: 7 identifies veru ¯ ¯ bal communication (agama). It can only be said to have been employed for the good of others and not for their injury. The mental modification which has for its sphere the meaning of words is the verbal cognition to the hearer. one who has clear compre¯ hension of the other two pramanas.
since these cognitions took place in the mind of the speaker. H.”10 The question is then raised in Va caspati’s gloss. but with his prior experience of perception or inference. the original experi¯ ence which his words report. the knowledge so obtained with compassion for the student without any twisting for the purposes of personal fame or fortune. the author stresses that ¯ the authority ascribed to agama is normally to be understood with reference to the ¯ hearer rather than the speaker. How do we know that the Veda is trustworthy and authoritative? We know so.”9 Vacaspati offers an example: “These ten pomegranates will a become six cakes. then the verbal communi¯ cation even of such persons as Manu would waver [and thus not be authoritative]. This would seem to be the reason for the restriction of Vedic study to the upper three castes—to those who have purified their minds sufficiently to meet the entrance requirement for becoming a student.”11 Manu is rescued. for even they declared things which they themselves had not seen or inferred. or competent and ¯ trustworthy. and speaks of things which cannot be believed. the ¯ authority of ¯ gama fails. ´ . ¯s vara. Such teaching is agama. says Va caspati. Although the description of ¯ gama ofa fered in I: 7 may be acceptable as far as knowledge from everyday word-use is concerned. At this point in the discussion the commentaries raise the question of the validity of the metaphysical knowledge of the Veda. Authority comes into ¯ gama on the side of the a hearer. or the verbal communication of valid knowl¯ edge.is of the Vedas and sages such as Manu claim to convey. In the gloss on Vyasa’s commentary attributed to Sankara. Here provision is made in Vya sa’s commentary for the ¯ identification of unauthoritative or invalid agama: “When the speaker has neither ¯ perceived nor inferred the object. produces a verbal communication that. by the answer that since he only says what is in the Veda. “wavers.s this problem is summarily answered by invoking ¯s vara as the Original Speaker who I´ was omniscient and therefore of unquestionable authority. for the hearer. it shows Sankara being true to the . “If that be so. his commentary Sankara argues that analogy (upamana) presupposes words and there¯ ¯ a fore is not a separate pramana (as Vedantins claim) but a sub-case of ¯ gama. Woods puts it.8 For the speaker. But later in the Yoga Sutras u ¯ a detailed explanation as to how this is the case is offered. as J. what he says is trustworthy because the Veda is trustworthy.12 This in¯. and then pass on ¯ . ´ . it seems to break down when related to the metaphysical knowledge which the R . by contrast. Such a teacher is apta. because it was spoken by ¯ the Original Speaker. First. the authority of the knowledge rests not with the process of verbal transmission (agama). Authority. however. it is of interest to note that in u ¯ ´ . who himself had directly seen or inferred the things spoI´ ken in the Vedas.” This incredible thing. For the hearer. is thus vested in the trustworthiness of the speaker. For the moment . terpretation is noteworthy on two counts. which the speaker has neither seen nor inferred.¯ ¯ AG A M A I N T H E Y O G A S U T R A S O F P ATA Ñ J A L I 13 (pratyaksa) or reason (anumana) about reality without confusion. the authoritativeness of the knowledge arises not from a direct perception of the object or from inference. As a postscript to our discussion of Yoga Sutra I: 7. who has to accept the knowledge of the speaker as authoritative since he has not had the first-hand experience of perception or inference. The teaching or verbal communication may still fail if the mind of the hearer is too covered with karmic impurity or too distracted to pay attention.
given special attention. by which to be judged a good scholar one must be able to exegete an opponent’s position with such skill that the result is accepted by the oppo´ .e. as it is in Sankara’s treatment of ¯s vara and the Vedas. or valid verbal knowledge? Do a such words have the power to effect release? These questions are taken up in Yoga Sutras I: 24–29. nent as a valid contribution to his own thought. he suggests. ´ . How does the cognition come to the thought-readers? Not by direct perception.13 ¯ Such a cognition. that thought will at once rise in their mind. T H E P OW E R O F S C R I P T U R A L W O R D S How is it that the scriptural words of the Veda. reveal . invoked by the R. . they will come to have a knowledge of the existence of the book in that place. is certainly not from either direct perception or in. says Aranya. analyze Yoga Su tra I: 24–29. ference. Sankara’s Vivarana gloss on the Vya sa bha s ya will be u ¯ ¯ ¯. The words uttered mentally by one person and the sure knowledge arising out of their meaning affects the other mind and produces similar knowledge in that mind. To do so in this passage. The quick answer given in the commentaries on I: 7 was that words of Manu and the sages were trustworthy in that they merely repeated the words of the Veda which had been directly seen by the original speaker ¯s vara. Sankara has to go against his own Advaita Vedanta position. Larson’s suggestion needs careful assessment as it would change current thinking. Yoga Sutras I: 24–29 examine this answer in detail.. Such persons are “mind-readers” and possess the power of thought-transference or telepathy.e. i. ´ . they cannot be seen or inferred). How is this so? Some persons. ¯ which sees Sankara’s philosophy as a direct descendant of Mi mamsa and/or Buddhist . u ¯ We recall that in Yoga Sutra I: 7 the question was raised as to how the words of u ¯ sages such as Manu could be judged as agama. since they spoke of ¯ metaphysical things which they had neither seen nor inferred. or authoritative. how can such words be trusted as ¯ gama. kara as a direct descendant of Sankhya-Yoga. Swami Harihara nanda Aranya suggests that mental ¯ . which treats upmana as an indepen¯ ¯ dent pramana. ´ thought. As we I´ u ¯ ´ . The second aspect of interest is that those who deny upmana usually ab¯. to instead seeing San ¯. ¯ ´ . and a purified mind “sees” them and thus receives the knowledge contained in the thought but unspoken sentence.s reality? Since the objects of scriptural words are metaphysical (i. not ¯ gama as Sankara has done. . It must therefore be a special case of verbal communication (a gama) in ¯ which the words are mentally spoken but not uttered aloud. telepathy involves thought transference and thus ought to be understood as a special case of verbal communication (agama). a ¯ On a quite different note. are ¯ specially gifted with the power to find out what is in another mind or to communicate one’s own thought to another. ¯ ¯. sorb it under inference.14 YOGA AND PSYCHOLOGY Indian scholarly tradition.is and sages. He offers the following example: If you think that a book is in such and such a place. that “the I´ Vedantinizing of Sankhya-Yoga” suggested by Gerald Larson should be most evident. ¯ ¯.
Unlike others whose sattva is tainted by admixtures of . Thus the special sattva of ¯s vara and the scriptures it reveals can never be equalled. “Tomorrow I must get up at day-break. of past or future or present or a combination of them. or from extra-sensory . ego-sense. desire. as Vyasa puts it. he has assumed a body of pure sattva (transparent consciousness). and thus restricts our use of ¯ gama to words based on inference and sensuous perception.” This thought lays down a seed or memory trace which causes ¯s vara to take on a sattva body at the I´ start of the next creation cycle. ¯s vara has never I´ been touched by any such experiences and thus is a unique purusa. cause. ways been and always will be free. The taints or hindrances. be. a In his comment on Vyasa. ¯s vara’s sattva is free of other gunas (obscuring qualities of consciousI´ . causes ¯s vara to take on this sattva body.14 In answer to the question. ness). the authority of the scriptures comes from the fact that they are a manifestation of ¯s vara’s sattva. This is the presupposition upon which the Yoga Sutra deI´ u ¯ finition of the authority of ¯ gama. and clinging to life. “what is the function of this sattva body that ¯s vara I´ takes on at the start of each new creation cycle?” Vyasa replies that its function is to re¯ veal the scriptures. with their authority on spiritual matters. Having established the existence of ¯s vara’s special sattva body on the basis of testiI´ mony and inference. or ¯ ¯ habitual memory trace. I´ Vacaspati Mis ra notes that ¯s vara takes on this pure sattva body due to this wish to help ¯ ´ I´ those purusas still in bondage. and ¯s vara’s sattva body. in prakrti. ¯s vara’s pure sattva a I´ reflects all of reality. Yoga Sutra I: 25 goes on to examine its special quality of omniu ¯ science. Again Vacaspati offers an analogy. . is grounded. ¯s vara’s action between ¯ I´ the cycles of creation is like that of Chaitra. ¯s vara has alI´ . of which ¯s vara is ¯ ¯ I´ free. and Vyasa admits that there I´ ¯ is a beginningless relation between the scriptures. include ignorance. ¯s vara. or their . In answer to the question as to what . who contemplates. . and this enables him to be in the world yet untouched by it. I´ Furthermore.”15 ¯ . Sankara takes the further step of arguing that all of this is es¯ ´ . is defined as a special kind u ¯ I´ of self or purusa which is beginninglessly untouched by the taints of karmas. it I´ is unique and therefore unsurpassed by any other power. I´ “Therefore this Lord is one whose power has none to equal or surpass it.¯ ¯ AG A M A I N T H E Y O G A S U T R A S O F P ATA Ñ J A L I 15 In Yoga Sutra I: 24 the so-called Original Speaker. and it is established that the Lord is a special Purusa apart from pradhana and other Purusas. or their latent impulses (vasana). Yet he is at the same time in the world.” and then having slept gets up at that very time because of a vasana. While all other . Indeed. rajas and tamas. purusas have to break their bonds with such experiences to realize release. all others have been tainted. in response to an opponent who asks for proof of the existence of ¯s vara’s special sattva body. Clearly this argument is circular. “after this period of latency finishes I I´ must again assume a pure sattva body so as to continue to help the world. the answer is given by Vacaspati that at the end I´ ¯ of each cycle of creation ¯s vara thinks to himself. fruition. with regard to supersensuous matters. ¯ It is this pure sattvic body which enables ¯s vara to function as a mind in the world. Vacaspati offers the ¯ analogy of the actor who takes on the role of Rama and yet does not confuse his identity as purusa with that of the worldly prakrti. the existence of the scriptures are cited. hatred. Unlike our minds. including both the sensuous and the supersensuous: “All certain knowledge. laid down by his contemplation. tablished by inference as follows: because ¯s vara’s sattva body has never been tainted. in which the proportion of tamas (dullness of consciousness) that is present prevents us from knowing supersensuous things.
as explained in Yoga Sutra I: 26. illumines everything without being dependent on the holes for a path. ¯s vara is in simultaneous contact with every object and so can perceive I´ ´ . Indeed the stress on the unlimited nature I´ ¯ ´ . ¯ u ¯ The last part of Vya sa’s commentary of Yoga Sutra I: 25 emphasizes the motiva¯ u ¯ . or excellence (Yoga Sutra I: 25). His freely chosen purpose.¯ tion of ¯s vara—to help the persons caught in the whirling vortext of sam sara. Out of all the purusas. ¯ most self. The ¯ gama. which Sankara could. that constrain the rest of us. says that if the opponent insists on understanding perception through limitations or sense organs. Thus. he could think of ¯s vara as experiencI´ ing “everything through the sense organs of all living beings. ¯ ´ . ture. Just so. they qualify as agama—the special agama that gives valid knowlI´ ¯ ¯ edge of extra-sensory or divine reality. From this scripture also comes information about ´ . when its covering jar has been shattered. ¯s vara remains free from the taint of I´ karma. making ¯s vara into the inI´ I´ . we see the ease with I´ ´ . I´ Sankara. Indeed. was to universalize ¯s vara so as to absorb all other purusas. as Larson suggests. everything. since only he has a sattva which has never been tainted by karma. is the seed of [Is vara’s] omniscience. is characterized as that from which the spiritual means for worldly happiness and final bliss come to one’s mind. has perception of absolutely everything at the same time. is to give help by u ¯ teaching knowledge and dharma. has entered as into a house. In his commentary Sankara adds some helpful examples. in his commentary on I: 26 I´ points out that the expression “first knower or speaker” should not lead us to think of ¯s vara in terms of an absolute beginning. For example. as Patañjali says. in answering an opponent who claims that ¯s vara must perceive nothing because of his lack of sense organs. ¯s vara is the first or original speaker I´ who may be thought of as dictating the Vedas to the R. Rather “first” or “original” expresses that fact I´ . such as senses like the eye.16 YOGA AND PSYCHOLOGY ¯´ perception. In passing it might be noted that Sankara finds himself quite at home with the description of ¯s vara put forth in this sutra. fulfill this crucial role beginninglessly. the Atman. if a light is set inside a clay jar with holes in it. which is free of the limitations.”16 The characterization of this omniscient knowledge in ¯svara’s sattva is a “seed” I´ (bija) is consistent with the idea that it “sprouts” or manifests itself anew in the Vedas at the start of each cycle of creation. I´ ´ . into which the inmost self.is at the start of each creation . ¯s vara. a . But this same light. The great saints such as the Buddhas or Jainas were all at one stage immersed in karma. Sankara. says Sankara. its light will illumine only what is directly outside of the holes. and due to that limitation do not have the same fullness of omniscience as ¯s vara. Since I´ the motivation is for others and not for himself. since he has never been limited by karma. Because the words of the Vedas are based on the direct (but supersensuous) perception of ¯s vara. the sattva body of ¯s vara. In doing this. I´ ¯s vara is the most perfect purusa in whom the seed of omniscience is at its utmost limit I´ . or scrips ¯. such as his name and his special qualities. By focusing on the omniscience of ¯s vara. of ¯s vara leads smoothly into Sankara’s Advaita Vedanta notion of Brahman. By virtue of his pure sattva body. I´ ¯ ´ . being beginninglessly I´ untouched by any covering karma.17 Thus the superiority of ¯s vara’s knowledge over the knowledge of all others.”18 Suddenly the Advaita Vedanta notion of saguna qualified Brahman has appeared. itself without sense organs. only ¯s vara has the power to I´ . The only change required ¯ . Vacaspati in his gloss on I: 25 defines ¯ gama as ¯ a including ´rutri (the Vedas) and smr ti (the Epics and Puranas). Vedantinize the Yoga Sutras.s cycle. whether that knowledge be small or great.
it would not be true that through the form of pranava. ´ . release may be realized. observes that devotion upon things which cannot be known directly (i. ¯ ¯ If there were not the fixed relation between this expressive word and what it ex¯´ presses. Yoga Su tras I: 27–29 may be taken together. the I´ ¯ pranava or sacred word. and this is the purport of the whole commentary.20 Having recognized the power of AUM to reveal ¯s vara. the R. the sound of the I´ word evokes its meaning. s . now seen to be valid knowledge (agama). . The theory of language implied here is given detailed analysis later in the text under Yoga Sutra III: 19. speech. Later in the text. So even at first I´ hearing. and in I: 28 that by the devotional chanting I´ . From the perspective of modern . It is like the relationship of father and son which is inherently fixed. It is ¯s vara who is expressed by the word AUM. but which is made clear by conventional usage of words such as “He is that man’s father” or “That man is his son. the Lord [Is vara] . is met face to face . It is worth noting in passing that the theory of language I´ ¯ assumed in the Yoga Sutras is consistent with the views of the Grammarians found in u ¯ ¯ ¯ Patañjali’s Mahabhasya and Bhartrhari’s Vakyapadi ya. one is freed from doubts (vitarka) and the seed of I´ rebirth is destroyed (Yoga Su tra II: 32). Om. the way is now cleared for the final question to be answered: “Do these a Vedic words. it is proper to employ Om as a means for practising worship of ¯´ God [Is vara]. by perception or inference) is to be done through the medium of the word. Having established the eternality of ¯s vara and of his speaking of the Vedas as I´ valid ¯ gama. In I: 27 we are taught that AUM. Conventional or ordiI´ nary usages only direct attention to that relationship between AUM and ¯s vara which I´ has existed beginninglessly. the contention is again stated: by devoting all actions to ¯s vara with no thought for oneself. and u ¯ ¯ ´ body to ¯s vara. Vyasa responds that the relationship between ¯ ¯s vara and the word AUM is fixed like that between a lamp and its light. are being discussed. does the ability of AUM to evoke ¯s vara arise I´ from conventional usage or is it something fixed like the relation between a lamp and its light? The intent of the question is to suggest that a convention is involved and that the word AUM should not be seen as necessarily evoking ¯s vara. .” The conventional usage of words serves only to ´ .e.. However.is and other sages are limited by time.19 ¯ . An opponent raises the question. reveal the fixed relations and meanings that have permanently existed. Sankara’s gloss effectively summarizes the meaning of Patañjali’s sutra and Vyasa’s commentary. when the angas. also enable one to realize re¯ lease?” To answer this question. connotes ¯s vara. ¯s vara is evoked. Sankara. AUM could just as well I´ ´ be related to another name such as Siva. . the yogin in sutra I: 28 is I´ ¯ directed to repeat it and meditate upon its meaning. ¯s vara’s sattvic consciousness. How does one perform such devotion to u ¯ ¯s vara? Sutras I: 27 and 28 give us the answer. (japa) of AUM release may be realized. And I´ since the Vedas have a beginningless relation with ¯s vara’s sattva. In his u ¯ gloss on Yoga Sutra I: 23 Va caspati Mis ra states that by devotion of mind. He has always been there. or aids to I´ yoga. But since there is a fixed relation between this expression and what it expresses. just as the sun is evoked by its light. The relationship between word and meanu ¯ ing is shown to be eternal and grounded in the sphot a or meaningful illumination of . they too have always I´ been there.¯ ¯ AG A M A I N T H E Y O G A S U T R A S O F P ATA Ñ J A L I 17 that ¯s vara is not limited or particularized by time. commenting on I: 26.
18 YOGA AND PSYCHOLOGY secular consciousness. The psychological process by which this takes place is spelled out in detail in Yoga Sutras I: 42–44. ¯s vara. only then is the sattva aspect of the devotee’s consciousness freed from the rajas or ¯´ emotional obscuration so that the object (Is vara. Four stages of increasingly pure habituation of the mind are described. AUM.” “Master Yogi. which is mixed up by the conventional usage of the word and the I´ meanings (artha) that the conventional usages have signified (e. Witness. he concludes. ¯s vara as “God. ¯s vara. this ´ .” I´ “Lord. but takes one beyond even that to a direct supersensory. in this case) makes its appearance in the mind in its own distinct nature. through chanting the force . I´ As one continues to concentrate only on the pranava. “face-to-face” I´ encounter.22 This is the savitarka samadhi ¯ ¯ experience of AUM (and its supersensuous object ¯s vara). through constant repetition I´ and habituation of the mind. it is easy for us to miss the depth of meaning implied in this sutra. From the ¯ I´ reports of yogis like Vya sa on I: 24. I´ would seem to be what is happening when Sankara interprets the ¯s vara of Yoga in such way as to appear co-extensive with the Brahman of Advaita Vedanta. is no longer a free outpouring of the heart: “It becomes a fixed formula which people recite without feeling or mood of devotion. the judgement of Friedrich Heiler in his modern classic on the history and psychology of prayer. unacquainted with the subtleties of yogic concentration. and to reach even this level I´ considerable study and practice is presupposed.” or even Eliade’s “macroyogin”). ¯s vara. and its meaning. Such conditional cognitions are either accepted from the traditional systems of thought or may be made up by one’s own imaginative thinking. tional words. to put this into convens . . The modern mind. One’s chanting of AUM now evokes only its natural and eternal reference. ing ¯s vara.is. The thought that such a primitive ritual could lead to a full revelation of the Lord is likely to be quickly dismissed as meaningless and empty ritual.. or devotional meditation. although manifest¯ . for example. is given technical analysis in the later passage. Thus at this ¯ lowest level of samadhi. although. To know it in its nirvitarka purity. as we have just done. in this experience one comes to know ¯s vara as the ¯ I´ original speaker of the Vedas to the R. of the habitual accretions is weakened (through non-fruition) until such karmic seeds exhaust themselves and disappear from the mind. Yoga Sutra I: 28 specifies that the u ¯ chanting of AUM with deep yogic concentration brings not only the full meaning of ¯s vara to mind. In Yoga Sutra I: 42 the low¯ est and most impure level is that in which the chanting of AUM evokes an experience of its object. even when we manage to block out ¯ external distractions and concentrate our minds sufficiently so as to become “caught up into oneness” with the pranava (AUM). Ritual devotional prayer. of course. As Vyasa puts it in his commentary on I: I´ ¯ 42.g. the samadhi achieved. already reduces us back to the level of savitarka. The mixing up or distortion (vikalpa) that the chanting of AUM is evoking in our minds at that stage results from the habitual way in which we have used the mantra in this and previous lives and the meanings (theological and otherwise) we have been conditioned by convention to attach to it. one must experience it for oneself. What Vyasa describes under I: 28 as coming to know well the ¯ ¯ relation between the word.”21 Contrary to such a simple-minded misconception of what is implied. This is the nirvitarka samadhi of ¯s vara. ¯ probably envisages the simple-minded chanting of the mantra by a devotee with a rosary in hand. untouched both in heart and mind. For example. is obscured and distorted by our habitual way of speaking and thinking.
¯s vara. and to be potential in all future cycles. that at this stage the devotee should be repeating AUM mentally rather than ¯ aloud. . but it is knowledge only of the present moment in space and time. and he has a perception of his own true nature. what happens then? From the nirvicara state.. . to most modern persons. . “sprouting” into the Vedas) and internal qualities (a pure sattva body). in his comment on this ¯ sutra. . One has forgotten oneself.” high. “When ¯ Om repetition and yoga come to perfection. The devotee’s knowledge (“knowing by becoming one with ¯s vara”) I´ is complete. While the devotee had to free himself from the bondage in karma. . I suspect.26 ´ . witness of the buddhi. light the difference between the purusa of ¯s vara and the devotee’s realization of his I´ .”24 Or as Sankara elaborates: When he [the yogin] is not disturbed by other ideas. . The final stage of nirvicara samadhi differs from the savicara stage in that in the ¯ ¯ ¯ nirvicara the limitation to the present moment in time and space is overcome (Yoga ¯ Sutra I: 44). he is perfect in repetition and in yoga. Sankara notes in his gloss that the words “As the Lord is a Purusa. ¯ I´ samsara. there are none of the obstacles like illness. Now the devotee is so completely one with ¯s vara that ¯s vara’s relation¯ I´ I´ ship with the pranava and the Vedas (of which it is the seed) is seen to have existed . by that perfection in repetition and meditation on the supreme Lord (parame´vara) the supreme (paramatman) who stands in the highest place (paramest hin) s ¯ .. .¯ ¯ AG A M A I N T H E Y O G A S U T R A S O F P ATA Ñ J A L I 19 The third level of savicara samadhi is reached through yet more repetition of the ¯ ¯ ´ . In savicara expe¯ I´ ¯ ¯´ rience the flow of consciousness so completely identifies with the object (Is vara) alone that the devotee’s mind is. the supreme Self (paramatman) shines ¯ ´ . says I´ ¯ Yoga Sutra I: 29. This does not mean that one lapses into some sort of stupor. As the Lord is a Purusa. .27 . as Jung insists on maintaining. devoid of its own nature. ¯s vara is different and unique in that he has always been free. radiant. in all previous cycles (beginninglessly). comes realization of the devotee’s own self. knows . . in all its vividness of external characteristics (the pranava I´ .25 This result is surely far removed from empty mindlessness that the ritual chanting of AUM implied to Heiler and. and the absence of all ob¯ stacles. so the Purus a in him. Vya sa comments: ¯ ¯´ As a result of devotion to the Lord [Is vara].23 On the contrary. as it were. At the savicara level one “perceives” ¯s vara’s pure sattva body.. him to be. I take Vya sa to mean ¯ by this that there is a complete loss of ego-consciousness. chant and is described in Yoga Sutra I: 43. forth. alone and beyond evil. so. Finally. . own purusa. pure. . the text then asks. As Vya sa puts it in his commentary on I: 28. The only distinguishing characteristics are provided by the ob¯´ ject (Is vara) itself. what is implied is that one is so “caught up” into ¯s vara that there is no room left for I´ a separate awareness of one’s own ego as the thing that is having the experience. Sankara suggests. when the yogin has reached the nirvicara state of full ¯ realization of ¯s vara’s perfection. to be manifest in the present cycle. totally commands one’s attention. shines forth for the yogin.
as an¯ a chored in the pure sattva body of ¯s vara.29 In strictly theoretical terms Eliade may be correct in his view that there was already a soteriological impulse in prakrti and therefore no spe. ¯ ¯ Sankara seems to have Vedantinized in his Vivarana gloss on Vya sa’s commentary. or aids to yoga practice. calls into question Eliade’s rather flippant reI´ mark that when all is said and done Patañjali’s introduction of ¯s vara into San khya I´ ¯. the devotee’s realization of his or her own purusa as also pure and free. we have valid knowledge of the supersensuous which ¯s vara has diI´ rectly “seen. I´ By meditatively chanting AUM. According to ¯ ¯s ¯s the Yoga tradition I´vara-pranidhana (focusing the mind upon I´vara) and svadhyaya ¯ ¯ . and ¯ ´ . in practice it would be most difficult since the last two niyamas. ¯ (in the form of the mantra chanting of AUM) has been the core practice of most yogis. While it would still be theoretically possible to realize self-knowledge.20 YOGA AND PSYCHOLOGY Our careful study of Yoga Sutra I: 24–29 has shown in a most detailed way how ¯ the power of scriptural words (agama) as manifested in ¯s vara gives not only super¯ I´ sensuous or divine knowledge but also a practical means for the realization of release. then. . The Yoga Sutras claim that ordinary words which report the perceptions and inferences of a clear ¯ mind can convey that knowledge by verbal communication (agama) to another per¯ ¯ son.28 CONCLUSION In contrast with Nietzsche’s view of language as a “prison house” or the modern structuralist view of language as an alien system weighing down human consciousness. Vachaspati Mishra. and his words are the ¯ . edge. According to the Yoga tradition. the Yoga Sutras of Patañjali with the commentaries of Vyasa. especially the special word “AUM. ¯ gama can also help us but it must be the ¯ gama or word of a a a special person—a purusa who was never obscured by karmic obstruction. When it comes to knowledge of the supersensuous or divine. it is clear that more attention must be given to ¯s vara and agama in the Yoga Sutras I´ ¯ ¯ than Eliade was prepared to allow. along with inference and perception. . Through . is such a special purusa. But the fact remains that without ¯s vara. soteriology is perfectly useless. Vyasa’s commentary on the Yoga Sutras.” ¯ which as the beginningless utterance of ¯s vara is the seed from which the Vedas arise. it was this route of devotion to ¯s vara that was choI´ sen by most of yogis as their path to release. I´ I´ ¯ gama would give no special knowledge from the Vedas or special help via the chanta ing of AUM. ¯s vara. Agama in this sense is judged by Yoga to be a praman a or source of valid knowl¯. “Yes” answers the Yoga Sutras.” But can these special words of scripture enable us to realize release from . The Yoga Sutra’s attribution of knowledge and spiritual power to ¯ gama. and . Then the fully purified perception of ¯ ¯ ¯s vara as the eternally pure purusa and original speaker of the Vedas opens the door to I´ . claims I´ . would have been removed along with all of Yoga Sutras I: 24–29. the devotee will gradually purify his or her mind until the highest level of nirvicara samadhi is realized. Vedic scriptures given to the R´is at the beginning of each cycle of creation. Add to that the evidence that it is precisely the ¯s vara aspect of Yogic ¯ gama that I´ a ´ . Sankara offer an analysis of language as having inherent within itself the power to convey knowledge (both sensuous and supersensuous) and to realize release. cial help from ¯s vara on the Vedas is needed.s these Vedas.¯ karma-sam sara.
¯ which are usually dated around 200 CE. Yoga was the traditional psychology of India in Bhartrhari’s day. and Sentence. In this chapter we examine how Patañjali’s Yoga psychology is assumed by Bhartrhari in writing his great work. as described at the beginning of the introduction. or Philosophy of Word ¯ ¯ . This chapter turns to the analysis of how words and sentence function according ¯ to Bhartrhari. school of metaphysics. The important commentary. ¯ ¯ . the . called the Tattva-Vaicaradi .3 The Yoga Psychology Underlying Bhartrhari’s Vakyapadi ya ¯ ¯ . Although the Yoga Sutras are written within the context of the Sankhya ¯ ¯. As noted in the introduction. A complete analysis of the Vakyapad¯ ya must include both its philosophical as¯ i 21 . 500 CE) undoubtedly knew the Yoga Sutras and the understanding of language and ¯ the Vedas put forth by Patañjali (described in chapter 2). and indeed has continued to oc. the classic formulation of traditional Yoga psychology is the Yoga Sutras of Patañjali. Vakyapadi ya (The Philosophy of Word and Sentence). tive. (c.1 the focus throughout is on the analysis of the psychological processes commonly accepted by all of the various schools. on ¯s the Yoga Sutras is attributed to Vyasa. An understanding of this commonly assumed Yoga psychology is necessary if Bhartrhari’s Va kyapad¯ ya (and his thought generally) is to be seen in its full perspec¯ i . or bha. Living after Patañjali. In the previous chapter we saw how the function of language as valid knowledge and the Vedas as divine truth were given psychological explanation by Patañjali in his Yoga Sutras. Bhartrhari . an explanation. I-tsing. written by Vacaspati Mis ra.i ¯ was added. India’s greatest philosopher of language. cupy that status in the minds of most Indians right up to the present. ¯ ¯ The seventh-century Chinese pilgrim to India. was the crowning work studied by the most serious students. orthodox and heterodox alike. It is only during the last few decades that the psychology taught in Indian universities and colleges has come to be modern empirical or scientific psychology. ¯ ¯ ¯ ¯ ´ . Later. reports in his diary that in the education curriculum of the day Bhartrhari’s Vakyapadi ya. and seems to be contemporary with Bhartrhari. . ya. or t ¯ka.
Sastri3 have concentrated on the first aspect. ´abdapurvayoga). as we saw in chapter 2.e. Not only will this provide a more complete . In one’s ordinary experience of consciousness. three aspects or substantive qualities (gunas) are found: sattva. The psychological mechanism by which Is vara’s reappearance in each new cre. have meant by ´abdapurvayoga as a discipline for meditation upon the Divine Word s ¯ ´ until moksa. keeps its own separate identity.8 Only the predominant guna will be easily recognized in a particular .e. his consciousness is described as being completely dominated by pure sattva. At the end of each creation. ¯´ Thus I s vara.7 ¯´ Let us briefly review the detailed description of this special consciousness of Is vara undertaken in Yoga psychology through an analysis of one’s own experience of consciousness. three gunas are always necessarily found together like three strands of a rope. However.. picture of Bhartrhari’s theory of language. the proportionate composition of consciousness assigned to each of the gun as is con. so that they may. Is vara freely wishes that his sattva consciousness should appear again at the time of the next creation. and the discipline for becoming one with the Divine Word. Within ¯´ I s vara’s consciousness is the seed form of all words. ¯´ I s vara’s omniscience which we examined in the previous chapter. A. or union with Sabdabrahman (Divine Word-Consciousness) is realized. attain ¯´ moksa. Within this sattva there is a teleology that ensures ¯´ the reappearance of Is vara in each new creation for the purpose of communicating to all beings his omniscient knowledge. or the Lord. Rather. with the help of his grace.22 YOGA AND PSYCHOLOGY pect (i.4 In this study a conscious effort is made to give equal treatment to both aspects. no individual guna ever exists independently. In current writing on the Va kyapad¯ ya.5 . the Yoga explanation of the processes required for communicating meaning at the lower level of language. stantly changing. Every new ¯´ cycle arises out of the need of I s vara’s consciousness to burst forth into expression. the metaphysical inquiry into the nature of meaning in language) and its psychological aspect (i. . rajas. ¯´ ation is ensured is as follows. THE STRUCTURE OF CONSCIOUSNESS ´ A S SA B D A B R A H M A N Va kyapadi ya I: 123 describes consciousness as an intertwined unity of cognition and ¯ ¯ word that constantly seeks to manifest itself in speech. which is pas. which is brightness or intelligence. and tamas. Iyer2 and G. the . s ¯ ¯ i scholars such as K. sion or energy. is described as having two characteristics: a pure consciousness of perfect quality (sattva) and as being the germ or seed (bija) of omniscience at its utmost excellence. which is dullness or inertia.. A conception of consciousness that seems parallel to Bhartrhari’s description is found in the Yoga Sutra analysis of ¯ . In this chapter an attempt is made at describing the Yoga psychology assumed by Bhartrhari but often left unstated. it will also suggest in detail what he may . The other two gunas will be present but subordinate. S. the metaphysics. thought. Although each of these gun as . This wish . and therefore their pres. ence will have to be determined by inference. ¯´ In the case of Is vara.6 Here the intertwining of word and meaning in consciousness is seen in its purest form. and largely neglected the second. which remains constant throughout the various manifestations and dissolutions of each cycle of creation. the psychological and practical aspects.
is timeless in that it continues on unchanging. The r. Scriptural truth. verbalized as Veda.is.s or agama (including ´ruti. his omniscience. . although the limitations necessary for human language are constantly being placed upon it.e. and the Pura nas). The psychological means ¯ s ¯. this revelation. . and attested to by. ¯ i ¯´ The Yoga conception of I s vara provides. or devotee. Bhartrhari maintains that the Veda is not only the . who. the ¯ . if it is to be ca. represents for Yoga psychology the pure ideal upon which the Yogin. but is also the image (anukara) of Brahman.is a . ¯ ¯´ The matchless perfection of I s vara’s sattva consciousness is evident in. As noted in chapter ¯´ 2. or divine consciousness. out of grace.i supersensuously sees directly s . I s vara is thus named ¯ ¯´ both the first knower and the first teacher. as described above. connotes I s vara with all his power for omniscience.12 For Bhartrhari . Although there may be some differences in Bhartrhari’s concept of agama. gives to the great r. by which this communication takes place is technically referred to as visist opahita (intuition caused by the grace of a special person). This is almost ¯ .. or mental potency. which he communicates to the r´is as scriptural truth. ¯´ into the omniscience incarnated in I s vara’s sattva and reveals it to other persons in the manifested form of uttered speech—Veda. the S abdatattva. ¯´ of I s vara’s sattva. should focus in his daily practice. this unity of omniscience and con¯´ sciousness. that con¯ i sciousness contain within it the seed state of omniscience. . in the very first verse of the Va kyapadi ya. both as the revealed word (s ruti) and the remembered writings of tradition (smrti). main outline of his conception is in agreement with that of Patañjali. Brahman is conceived of as the omniscient ¯ ¯ ´ word-principle. as required by the Va kyapad¯ ya. And just as the Yoga Sutras ¯ take this omniscient consciousness as the universal basis for the scriptural truth (agama) of the r. I s vara is defined as a special kind of being who is free from or untouched by what ´ we might call instinctual drives (kles as) and the actions or thoughts performed as a result of such drives (karma). Within each creation.s .. The underlying metaphysical assumption here (from Bhartrhari’s perspective) is that Brahman freely phenomenalizes himself as . so also Bhartrhari conceives of agama as necessarily existing within ¯ ¯ . ¯´ Is vara as an act of grace so as to provide the means (i. what is left is I s vara’s omniscient consciousness with its compassionate telos ¯´ for communication.s direct vision of that which is the essence of all language and all revelation. It is in this sense that I s vara is a close parallel to Bhartrhari’s .11 When all these aspects of psychological functioning are ¯´ deleted. the epics. ¯ leaves behind a samskara. experi¯ ence. enables beings to achieve moksa.THE YOGA PSYCHOLOGY 23 . AUM. namely. at least.9 It is the dynamic ground upon which all language and knowledge rests and ´ from which all speech evolves. must function through human cognition. smrti. which. ¯´ identical to the Yoga Sutra description of I s vara as the ever free and eternal Lord ¯ whose omniscience. Va kyapad¯ ya conception of consciousness as a given unity of thought and meaning. the authoritative vak. is really the authoritative verbalization . pable of human understanding. which is I s vara’s sattva. ´ . all beings and providing the basis for their pratibha.10 All this is expressed in the one mystic symbol. and may therefore be taken as the expression of the true nature of consciousness. On the psychological level. ¯´ I s vara. his own consciousness. Thus there is ¯´ a kind of continuum between Is vara’s sattva and that of the lowest being (jiva). the revelation of the Veda) by which one can attain moksa. . which acts as a “seed state” from which ¯´ Is vara blossoms afresh in each new creation. when ¯´ spoken. means of attaining moksa.
metaphysics. or final discrimination. and therefore are also referred to as bi ja. Although Bhartrhari’s sphot a theory of language is nondualistic.24 YOGA AND PSYCHOLOGY While all this indicates good grounds for the use of Patañjali’s psychological ¯´ analysis of I s vara as a parallel against which to interpret Bhartrhari’s conception of re. ¯ . ¯ consciousness as a latent form or sam skara. Brahman. ¯ . It is only at the level of moksa. . In the vrtti. it is self-luminous. Now. which is the essential characteristic of . Knowledge is by its nature in the form of words. a total break with Bhartrhari’s theory. and therefore the nature of the cause can be deduced by observing what persists in the effects. I s vara’s omniscient sattva. ¯´ The above discussion shows that in the Yoga conception of Is vara there is a readymade basis for a psychological interpretation of the Va kyapad¯ ya view of conscious¯ i ness. . as the root cause of all . that . . . since all manifestations of Brahman are intertwined with the word. the psychological mechanism by which the noumenal word ´ ¯´ forms of Is vara or the S abdatattva exist from one cycle of creation to the next was iden. ing directly to kaivalya (realization of the purusa’s existence as a self independent and . Consequently. there is evidence . On the analogy of the seed and the sprout. prakrti. samskaras are seen to be self-per. it is stated that our knowledge of everything in the world is interwoven with the word. The “seed” connotation emphasizes potency.13 From the viewpoint of San khya-Yoga ¯. free from the fetters of prakrti) that the Sa nkhya-Yoga dualistic metaphysics results in ¯.15 . however. as a manifestation of prakrti. must be of the nature of the word (S abdatattva). of a similar sort of causal argument. ¯ tified as samskara. only appears to have intelligence as . or citta vrtti. we must first cognize the word relating to it. it can be inferred that gold is the original material out of which they were all made. gold may be seen to exist in all objects made from gold. speech. there is no difficulty. for as the ultimate Word-Prin. . one difference does exist at the level of the highest metaphysical speculation. In that discussion. 1: 123. for the prac¯´ tical purpose of our psychological experience. When a particular mental state (citta vr tti) passes away into another. . Therefore. which is always attempting to manifest itself in another mental state similar to the first. ¯ ¯´ Is vara’s state of sattvic omniscience is described as bi ja in that his matured omniscience ¯ lays down the seeds for its own eternal continuance both within and between creations. lead. Samskara is defined as follows. In order to cognize any object. namely.14 The nature of prakrti is also exemplified in terms of causation. results in a like samskara. ¯ petuating in nature.16 Such sam skara’s are always tending to manifest themselves anew. so also the root cause of all such ´ manifestations. ¯´ Va caspati points out that I s vara’s sattva does not possess the power of consciousness. or commentary on the Va kyapadi ya ¯ ¯ . From ¯´ Bhartrhari’s viewpoint. By looking at them. ¯ since sattva is nonintelligent in its own nature. At the empirical level of verbal communication . A particular mental state. therefore. sattva. a result of avidya or the beginningless wrong identification between purusa and ¯ . . . between individuals. ¯ samskara. needs no outside illumination (such as purusa). ´ ality as word-consciousness or Sabdabrahman. the cause persists in all its effects. or seed states. ¯ . For example. ´ ciple (S abdatattva). it does not totally disappear but is preserved within . I s vara’s sattva also appears to us as self-illuminated in nature. from the Yoga standpoint. The Yoga system is ultimately a duality between pure consciousness (purusa) and nonintelligent matter (prakr ti). since for psychological purposes both Yoga and sphot a treat consciousness as being self-manifesting.
¯ consciousness. ¯ state-samskara-mental state results in the establishing and strengthening of habit patterns (vasanas). the mind has an inherent tendency toward knowledge and the revela.. is like a constantly moving river whose flow can go in either of two directions—or both ways at the same time. we have seen how the sattva aspect of citta is beginninglessly endowed with the word forms or meanings of the Veda because of the ¯´ ¯ grace of I s vara. ¯ Thus.18 Through the . fluctuate or change. Such a . ¯ In Yoga thought such samskara series or vasanas are categorized as either (1) klist a ¯ ¯ . ignorance (avidya) and egoity (asmita). In the Yoga analysis of consciousness. or (2) aklist a (unafflicted). thus the innate overall tendency of consciousness is to flow in the direction of knowledge. and free from the predicate relations that characterize ordinary speech. of the less-reinforced series impotent. obstructing and leading away from the revelation of knowledge or insight (prajña). the mind has an innate tendency toward ignorance. ¯ tion of Brahman. partless. The mention of phenomenalization here is simply to indicate that the rajas and tamas aspects of consciousness provide the potential for its various particular manifestations.” or vasana. word-mean¯ ing. it contains in addition to this pure sattvic intuition elements of tamas and rajas (especially the latter). . or states within consciousness. since it is ¯ itself the substratum—the eternal universal essence upon which all phenomenal language manifestations of that word depend. In Yoga thinking this cycle is beginningless (i. ¯ ¯´ sam skara series resulting from I s vara’s beginningless bestowing of the Veda within consciousness.. ent telos of consciousness is toward the self-revelation and communication of which Bhartrhari speaks. which provide the material and motive force for the phenomenalization of the sphot a into thought and speech. These sattvic word forms are equivalent to Bhartrhari’s vakya-sphot as.20 As prajña. Sam ska ra series provide the psychological process by which the sphot as become and continue as vr ttis. primordial noumenal sphot a is psychologically analyzed as a concentrated insight .e. ¯ or sentence meanings. the focus has been on the analysis of consciousness at the noumenal or ´ pas yanti level in order to demonstrate its nature as including cognition.THE YOGA PSYCHOLOGY 25 . ¯ ¯ . the continual practicing of an opposing samskara series will eventually weaken and render the “root. this perspective. Thus. . Up to this point. . and so on. ¯ (prajña ) that exists as an undisturbed succession of pure aklis t a sam skara. the inher. Although the repetition of the same series of mental . ¯ How does this Yoga analysis of consciousness and its sam skara function apply to the Va kyapad¯ ya? Bhartrhari’s sphot a theory defines consciousness as an intertwined ¯ i . It does not ¯ . unity of cognition and word which constantly seeks to manifest itself in speech. Yet as consciousness. there is a self-generating cycle from mental state to sam skaras to mental state.. . . or pure intuition.19 The teleology of ¯´ consciousness (via the grace of I s vara). . leading toward prajña. But through the klis t a-sam skara series composed of beginningless . nor does it require any supporting object (alambana). it has always been going on) but not necessarily endless. which are likened to “roots” that have grown deep within the “soil” of ¯ ¯ . The actual processes of phenomenalization have not as yet been analyzed. and the desire for speech. or consciousness. (afflicted by ignorance). . .. ensures that the will to realize knowledge is never lost. which characterize the endless round of birth¯ ¯ death-rebirth. . however.17 Seen in ¯ ¯ . citta.. it is uni¯ tary.
. a strong effort at concentrated thinking is often required before any clear conception of it is mentally achieved. self-awareness in two forms. a description has been offered of how consciousness could contain within itself (in a potential state) word. and an effort of the mind to bring into self-awareness some idea (or glimpse of reality) that is only vaguely within our ken. It is this characteristic of consciousness that will be focused on now. ¯ pure sattva sam skara series. But the telos of kratu to burst forth (sphut) into disclosure is experienced within . to communicate. “a going out. . Although we may feel very sure of its presence just beyond the fringes of our conscious awareness. One is also conscious of a compulsion to manifest one’s inner thought in speech (or writing).21 Bhartrhari maintains that this kratu. But thinking it is not enough. An introspective examination of one’s initial experience in the act of speaking provides the starting point. and although we may find ourselves impelled by a great desire to reveal that idea in discursive thought. At its earliest genesis the speaking act would seem to involve the following: some kind of mental effort to control or tune out distracting sensations and thoughts.22 According to Yoga. On the one hand. or inner energy. or unmanifested sphot as. This level of consciousness has been ´ ´ shown to be synonymous with pas yanti vak or S abdabrahman in the Va kyapad¯ ya. subjective consciousness and its desire. but only the constant presence of meaning as a whole. it is . this urge or inner energy (kratu) that is responsible for the whole process of the manifestation of consciousness and the expression of sphot a or meaning-whole in both . There is present. for only then does the urge for the revelation of the hidden idea seem fully satisfied. as a speaker. We have already described con´ sciousness in its unmanifested state (pas yanti va k) as containing the omniscience ¯ ¯ ¯´ bestowed by I s vara’s sattva. inner thought and outer speech. According to Bhartrhari. while on the other hand there is the epistemic urge of the . pervasively existing within undifferentiated consciousness in eternally continuous . It is simply the vak (word) of Is vara ¯ .” a desire for expression.26 YOGA AND PSYCHOLOGY P S YC H O LO G I C A L P RO C E S S E S I N S PE A K I N G In the above-mentioned examination of the nature of consciousness. In it there is no distinction between word and meaning. The characteristic of this state is that in it sattva pre¯´ dominates over rajas and tamas in a steady flow of I s vara’s omniscient ideas (Vedas). cognition. the clearer one’s corresponding intuition of the object often becomes. (idea or meaning-whole)? In Yoga theory it is clear that the energy aspect of any manifestation of consciousness will be directly attributable to rajas. These ideas. what would be the psychological processes involved in speaking forth the sphota . Even then one may well feel dissatisfied in that the laboriously conceived conceptualization proves to be so inadequate and incomplete in comparison with one’s direct intuition of the noumenal “idea” that remains stubbornly transcendent in the face of all one’s attempts to capture it in discrete thought. are but limitations within sattva of the pure . an inwardly focused concentration of the mind. self. there is the pent-up energy for disclosure residing in the sphota. however. Yet the more persistently and intensely one thinks. is a quality of the sphota it. and the desire for expression. ¯ ¯ ¯ i ¯´ Here the sphota exists in an undifferentiated state.
¯ ¯ ¯ ¯ order to reveal itself becomes the external word. as Vya sa puts it. This is the sense of “I-ness. inherent in consciousness can only be known as a general datum of consciousness but with the characteristic of “I-ness” or “mine. Thus it is also referred to as mahat. a tamas preponderance of consciousness. ¯ sattva consciousness through the ahamkara develops itself into the five cognitive senses (jñanendriya) of vision. or vayus (psychomotor activities) that help both action and cognition and ¯. but only in an implicit way within the bare self-awareness.” Sphota at this level is described as . the subject or the knower. ¯ aham kara. ¯ The next level of manifestation occurs when the buddhi consciousness. and sexual generation. which knows itself to be active and holds itself as the permanent energizing activity of all the phenomena of life. and rajas to the sakti. the grace of ¯´ I s vara).25 In the Yoga description the . as a result of the teleology inherent in consciousness (i. ¯ self as ego (aham kara).” or “mine. since the latter was already characterized as having a dominance of sattva. locomotion. the .e. the instru. or collective consciousness. ¯ ation of the buddhi through the aham kara occurs by the instrumental activity of rajas in evolving. Following first the rajas-produced sattva preponderance. which posits it. containing within it all the buddhis. Also formed by the rajas activity in the sattva .24 Still. ¯ the aham kara. turns back upon itself and divides into a part that sees and a part that is seen—the subject-object distinction that characterizes thought. Dasgupta helpfully summarizes this rajas-produced individuation of citta: . According to Yoga theory. is equivalent to the suksma vak. ¯ ¯ vak for self-manifestation.. At the initial aham kara level. . through . “all we can say ¯ is that it exists.THE YOGA PSYCHOLOGY 27 universal knowledge of consciousness. By the further activity of rajas. evacuation. although conscious of itself. these two sides of subject and object exist. the subtle inner word (su ksma va k) that becomes the knower (jña ta ). or intellects. the . and then in ¯ . This bifurcated individu. however. has as yet no other content to know since the tamas gun a is still under suppression. smell. and. and the pranas. there is no subject-object distinction and therefore the sphot as . or power of ¯ .” in Yoga writings. on the one hand. taste. and hearing. or “the great one. on the other. ¯ themselves. consciousness accomplishes this involutional bifurcation by virtue of the germs of subjectivity and objectivity that the gun as of consciousness contain within . At this level of collective consciousness (buddhitattva). It is in this manner that Yoga theory envisages the collective consciousness of the buddhitattva being individuated into the intellects (individual buddhis) of finite persons.” “me. touch.”23 This buddhitattva is consciousness in its most universal form. are the life-force manifestations of rajas. the five action faculties (karmendriya) of speaking. there is no subject-object distinction. of individuals and potentially all the matter of which the gross world is formed. ¯ preponderance is a further specialization of the ahamkara as manas (mind). buddhi consciousness transforms itself into the ego. kara directly connects itself with the cognitive and conative ment whereby the aham ¯ senses. “I-ness” is a preponderance of rajas as manifested by sattva. But at this first phase of ego manifestation the ego. This bare . a sattva preponderance and. the buddhitattva is affected by its own pent-up rajas activity. or ego.” Due to the increasing preponderance of rajas gun a in the originally pure sattva of buddhi. it is seen as a continuing individuation of the buddhitattva. handling. Now.
These are seed forms of the ¯ ¯ inherent ´abda (word) vocalization patterns. as Bhartrhari points out. more coherent whole. it is different for each individual. . flavor or taste (rasa). This is the expressive element of sphota in its potential state. . Increasing differentiation proceeds pari passu with increasing integration within the evolving whole. individual buddhis may appear to be subject to growth and decay. These seeds are the meaning elements (artha) in potential form. taken in . the above situation is interpreted as fol¯ ¯ lows. ¯´ series bestowed by the grace of I s vara. Each . less determinate.. . to already exist in the newborn baby who does not yet know any language. or citta. On the other side of the bifurcation by the activity of rajas. . described above as Vedic aklist a sam skara . the ´ ´ tanmatras possess the potential physical qualities of sound (s abda). or subtle el¯ ements. should not be thought of as having reached the end of its process of change. the tamas gun a of the . by a further evolution of themselves. In its state as mere mass. touch (spars a). knowledge is concerned. however. tamas is referred to as bhutadi. comes fully dynamic and vibrant. The underlying principle of citta’s transformation is concisely stated by Dasgupta: “The order of succession is not from whole to parts nor from parts to whole but ever from a relatively less differentiated. each buddhi is separated from other buddhis by its own peculiarly associated ignorance (avidya ). Consciousness. but so far as a general mind (ka ran a buddhi) apart from sense ¯ . the gun as. ¯ buddhi with its own group of ahamka ra (ego) and sense-evolutes thus forms a microcosm separate from similar other buddhis with their associated groups. and smell (gandha).26 ¯ . produce the five gross elements of matter. ¯ tains seed forms of the inherent meanings. Even there. ¯ buddhitattva individuates through the aham kara into the five tanmatras. less coherent whole to a relatively more determinate. But insofar as the individual buddhi . having reached the furthest limit of its rajas individuation by producing the senses and manas on the one side and the material atoms on the other. and are also referred to as the expressed aspect of the sphota. which. At the collective level each buddhi has incorporated in its particular avidya ¯ vasanas accumulated from word usage in previous lives. . are seen s . These tanmatras are ¯ ¯ the subtle material counterparts of the five cognitive senses that formed part of the rajas-sattva individuation described above. but in combination with rajas be. the rajas-energized transformation of sattva and tamas toward both individuation and integration results in a totality of mass. which. By its combination with differing amounts ¯ ¯ of energy (rajas). ¯ color or shape (rupa).28 YOGA AND PSYCHOLOGY The individual ahamka ras and senses are related to the individual buddhis by ¯ his developing sattva determinations from which they had come into being. So far therefore as knowledge is subject to sense-influence and the ego.”27 Seen in its cosmic perspective. participates in the general mind (the buddhitattva). or aggregations ¯ ¯ ¯ of the original mass-units. and illumination that remains constant throughout its diversity of collocations. The tamas gun a by itself is inert mass. From the viewpoint of the Va kyapadi ya. . Although manifestations of the gun as within . energy. Due to their particular collocations of mass and energy. in somewhat the same sense as matter is conceived as moving electrical energy charges in modern physics and chemistry. there is a community of all buddhis in the buddhitattva. the bhutadi is individuated into various tanmatras. the sattva there encountered con.
¯ lower levels. In the introspection of one’s speaking act. . ¯ In its buddhi function. of both the word-meanings (arthas) and the word-sounds (dhvanis—vocalization pat. the . provides for the overall sense of awareness. ¯ differ. of course. the speech organ acts as a variable s ¯ . such an epistemic drive has been shown to provide both the desire to bring into self-awareness Bhartrhari’s hidden meaning (artha) of sphot a . this represents the cognitive birth of the earliest formulations in one’s grasping of the whole idea. perception may be thought of as being either external or internal. In Yoga psychology. and manas accordingly as its functions . Rajas. rajas has demonstrated its power to produce the subject-object distinction that characterizes speech at its two .THE YOGA PSYCHOLOGY 29 the totality of their manifested and unmanifested citta. which. the antah karan a contains the sam skaras or memory traces . . The buddhi functions as the discriminating. In Yoga theory it seems clear that rajas activity provides the psychological basis required for the “instinctive urge” to phenomenalize the sphot a. External perception. tion are psychologically composed by the interaction of the vibrant and highly charged ´abda tanmatra with the organ of speech. But ¯ in order for the ´abda tanmatra to be so structured. knowing intellect. Internal perception is said to occur via the internal mental organ (antah karan a). speaking act itself and its fully individuated manifestation of the sphot a as word. . ¯ viduation of the buddhitattva through the aham ka ra. . The formation of the aham ka ra. and the subsequent urge to express that revelation in uttered speech (dhvani). ahamkara.” and the manas as the processing or liaison center between perceptive and motor activity. names such as buddhi. but rather as an attempt to functionally describe the unified functioning of the whole antah karan a. ¯ the threefold character of buddhi. not to refer to any kind of structural division within consciousness. and the concomitant awareness of the forming of that artha into inner speech. . At this stage. The overall form of the dhvani is provided by the artha through its “magnetlike” attracting of the tanmatra into its (the arthas) collateral dhvani pattern. as its own cognition. and manas are used. meaning (artha) and word-sound (dhvani) will be examined. the manas aspect of the antah karan a is coordinating the concomi. in its more individuated forms as mind and senses. Now that the instinctive or dynamic basis for expression of sphot a has been described. . occurs through the sense organs. At the finite level of ego. or vakya sphota. In its aham kara function. . The dhvani-thoughts concomitant to the artha of the sphota in ques. tions between artha and dhvani are therefore manifesting themselves. or mind. mind. . the aham kara as providing perception with the ego-sense of “mine. awareness of the universal artha. The initial distinc¯ . ¯ that in Yoga theory. The individuation of the ´abda tanmatra into s ¯ s ¯ a particular sphota dhvani manifestation occurs through the conjoint action of a vari. . . And in its indi. the antah karan a has the first . which assumes . . up state within the buddhitattva. or dhvani. . or meaning. and senses. It should be noted here . are a cosmic constant with no overall increase or decrease but having a continuous circular flow within the system as a whole. aham kara. is a clear description of the energy for disclosure (sphut ) that Bhartrhari conceives of as residing within the sphot a. with its sense of egoity. in its pent. ety of factors. forms the basis for the experiencing of epistemic curiosity. tant developing vocalization patterns into internal thoughts in which the order of words is present. ¯ terns from previous lives).
Throughout all of this. like waves moving outward when a stone is dropped into the water. of how the sphot a inherently present within the bud. drive the ´abda tanma tra. is all that is required.28 It is in this way that vasanas of vocaliza¯ ¯ ¯ tion patterns from previous lives29 instrumentally operate through the speech organ so that the speech organ and the electric vibrancy of the ´abda tanmatra can together res ¯ spond to the electromagnet-like pattern of the artha to produce the dhvani. pran a. his or her utterance. or breath. dhvani is still at the level of thought or inner speech. the ¯ ¯ . duced as word-sound (dhvani) by the articulatory organs. or breath. In addition to the organ of speech. will also be involved. strike against the hearing organ of the listener. . Therefore to move to the final level of individuation requires only that the gross forms. when these sounds striking against the ear as uttered phonemes evoke in . But exactly how do these discrete phoneme patterns striking against the ear psychologically function so as to evoke the partless sphot a inherently residing in each . so that even at the level of internal thought. the speaking act was described. the phonemes continue to ¯. Thus. Communication occurs. the Va kyapad ¯ ya is seen to provide a logical and ¯ i experienceable explanation of the speaking act. receive further development. This is ¯ ¯ Bhartrhari’s vaikhari vak level of expression. Once articulated as configurations of gross atoms patterned by the psychomotor activities of the breath (pran a). P S YC H O LO G I C A L P RO C E S S E S I N H E A R I N G In the previous section. In Yoga theory the individuating process is a continuum. so as to include hand-eye coordi¯. articula¯. in which what is meant (artha) is pro. showing how. interpreted according to Yoga psychology. however. or psychomotor structuring. according to Yoga psychology. until the gross. in its gross sound form. already minutely present. vibrate outward in expanding concentric circles from the speaker. The above-mentioned interpretation provides a practical psychological explanation. ¯ tion of the phonemes occurs. the manas is providing the psychomotor coordination for the complex cognitive activity involved. s ¯ through the speech organ.30 YOGA AND PSYCHOLOGY filter through which the tanmatra is limited. according to Bhartrhari. in terms of Yoga theory. Speaking aloud requires only that the processes of one’s thought-out sentences be given an increase of pran a. or nada. a slightly different pattern of the pran a. In the analysis this far. the mind of the listener a perception of the same sphota from which the speaker began . such as action of ¯. dhi can express itself as artha and dhvani within individuated consciousness. The hearing act is initiated when the uttered phonemes in their concentric expansion as configurations of gross atoms. ranging from the subtle speech of inner thought to the gross articulation of the phonemes. the initial gross manifestations of dhvani will be present in a subtle fashion. the psychomotor activities.30 In the case of written speech. the muscles of the diaphragm. corresponding to Bhartrhari’s madhyama va k. the magnet-like action of the artha structured or limited the pervasive ´abda tanmatra by filtering it through the inherent vocalization patterns (from s ¯ vasanas of word use in previous lives) of the speech organ so as to produce a dhvani or ¯ ¯ sound continuum. nation and a learned system of phonetic representation.
possessed as they are of the potentiality of . For example. the literal sounds of g. at the same time. The sutra is stated ¯ ¯ in terms that seem to provide a very close parallel to those of the sphot a theory: . And the organof-hearing has as its object only that [emission of air] which has been mutated into a sound [by contact with the eight places of articulation belonging to the vocal organ]. for they cannot coexist .” as the alambana or sup¯ . Vya sa analyzes the hearing problem in terms almost identical to those ¯s ¯ of the Va kyapadi ya.ya. port for the ´abda and artha. ¯ regard to the function of samskaras and the general idea that the heard phonemes cognize the sphot a through a series of perceptions distorted by error. Fortunately. as determined by convention. to be the meaning or object. giving names to all objects (arthas). denote in this particular order (gauh . while they manifest the word [sphot a]. . tion following the hearing of the first phoneme has the highest error. “artha” is interpreted.”31 But this is still a rather general analysis.32 Vyasa thus ends up with the same problem as Bhartrhari. would seem to be very close to the sphota of Bhartrhari. . they become audible (avis) and they become inaudible ¯ (tiras). Sounds-of-syllables (varn a) do not naturally aid each other. or dhvani. “The sounds . . and so on. But it is a mental-process (buddhi) that grasps the word [as significant sound] by seizing the letter-sounds each in turn and binding them together [into one word]. perception following the hearing of the last phoneme has the lowest error. and the sphota . Va caspati adds the comment that ¯ a specific sonorous impression is thus established in the antah karan a as the hearing of . the final sound brings to the mind which has now attained maturity or a certain fitness by the awakening of the impressions of previous cognitions. Vya sa begins the discussion of his solution to the problem by suggesting that ¯ each phoneme taken by itself is capable of standing for any meaning. Hence it is said that individually [letter-sounds] lack the nature of a word. In his bha. and therefore are able to denote a certain meaning (artha). Thus there are many uttered sounds. and “pratyaya. which by being placed in particular orders result in slightly different overall sounds. Then. The specific sonorous impression that is evoked in the . ´ “s abda” is used in the sense of the word-sound.THE YOGA PSYCHOLOGY 31 individual buddhi ? On this question all Bhartrhari offers are a few suggestions with . the preceding and following letters have the function of restricting or limiting the application of each letter to a particular meaning. “cow”) the . voice has its function [in uttering] only the [sounds of ] syllables. [phonemes]. But when a letter appears in combination with other letters. leave impression-seeds . Perhaps the most detailed psychological description of the process occurs in the vrtti. the ordered utterance ceases. it has universal application. . ¯ ¯ . Perhaps a more systematic interpretation can be obtained from Yoga psychology. s . . Yoga Sutra 111: 17 deals with this exact question. ¯ [sam skaras] progressively clearer and conducive to the clear perception (of the word). namely. the form of the word as coloured by itself. as in sphot a theory. dewlap. . the sphot a percep. and h . object that is possessed of udder. Not having attained-to-the-unity-of a word and not having [conveyed a definite meaning]. . ical mechanism do the ephemeral phonemes heard by the ear become bound together by the buddhi into a unity (sphota) that manifests the meaning-whole? . au. by what psycholog¯ .
because of its sattvic-dominated composition. . then why is it that in our speech experience meaning seems to be conveyed in a mediate and often unclear fashion by the series of heard phonemes. This mental unity. reveals the one mental image of the sphot a. The fact that the original sphota. . its particular “vibration” taken together with the “vibrations” of the preceding phonemes— . in the speaking act. ¯ ¯ referred to is the taking of the uttered letters and words produced by the organ of speech. The hearer. to its pervasive existence in the buddhitattva. But if there is . or sphot a.32 YOGA AND PSYCHOLOGY mind is the single image of the word gauh . manas. psychological process by which this inner revelation of the one by the many heard phonemes takes place? The solution offered by Vyasa and Vacaspati is actually the logical counterpart of ¯ ¯ the process described in the last section. In the case of hearing. In this way a complete circle is established from speaker’s sphota to uttered . sulted in the utterance of its particular vocalization of ´abda tanmatra through the s ¯ speech organ.” which then travels throughout the consciousness of the hearer. to be the ultimate word. . prana. necessitating the expression of the noumenal whole in phenomenal parts. due . The ear. then has the task of trying to get back to the partless intuition of the sphota from which the speaker began. This sympathetic “vibration. commonly called a word. manas. The reason for this obscuring of the circle of speech was previously seen. the subsequent phonemes of the whole spoken pattern strike upon the ear. et cetera. But what exactly is the . immediate fashion by the unitary sphota? . The sequence of the uttered phonemes. has no parts or sequence within itself and reveals a meaning-object that is also one. the sympathetic vibration induced within the hearer’s buddhi more and more closely approximates the total sound pattern of the gross sound. The avidya. including both the .33 As . responds to the magnet-like sound-wave pattern that was originally induced by the action of the artha on the ´abda tanmatra. phonemes to heard phonemes to perception of same sphota within hearer. The sattvic s ¯ aspect of the hearing organ thus begins with the hearing of the first phoneme to approximate (vibrate in tune with) the total sound pattern sent out by the speaker. ¯ induces maturation of the same sphota samskara series in the buddhi of the listener. and ¯´ if consciousness has an inherent telos toward full revelation of the sphota (as Is vara’s om. the particular phoneme sequence of the utterance approaches the ear as airwave modulations. is already potentially present throughout . when spoken as a series of phonemes or sound vibrations is already considerably obscured and divided on its arrival at the hearer’s ear. ¯ scribed as being the resultant of the samskaras of speech patterns from previous lives and the “magnet-like” attraction of the artha. by which the artha of a particular sphota re. ¯ still active within the buddhi by virtue of their self-induced samskaras—triggers a recog34 nition of the inherent sphota in the listener’s buddhi. For these reasons the sphota ¯. rather than in a perfectly clear. as the last one is heard by the ear. or ignorance. and organ of . a completely closed circle from speaker’s sphota to hearer’s sphota. . which is . and to the obscuring of the meaning by the beginningless avidya. . through his or her own individuated consciousness. With the hearing of the last phoneme. The distinctive pattern of dhvani produced by the speech organ was de. . ¯ the hearer’s buddhi sattva and its individuations into aham kara. to be due both to the finite nature of the individuated manas and speech organ. sattva-dominated levels of the buddhi and the grosser levels of the external organs. niscience).
artha. the meaning (artha). with its commentaries. or effort of articula. as adhyasa. Thus the single consciousness state within the listener is the vakya sphota “It is a tree. or superimposition. that Bhartrhari has defined as vak at the vaikhari . As was the case in the speaking act.. . Although this san keta intensification of the natural correlation has the positive function of helping the hearer to perceive the sphot a intended by the speaker. the single hearing effort inherently includes within it the verb is (asti). to be something real in itself is a result of common understanding (sampratipatti). paves the way for its recognition.g. or single consciousness state.”37 Va caspati shows that ¯ psychologically the expression of the word is really a single vrtti. Bhartrhari says that the conventional understanding ¯ . of the utterance of a single word that is a verb (e. of the elders or sanketa. there is the inherent hearing of the vakya-sphota. “It is owing to our knowing what this [word] means in accordance with conventionalusage that we attempt to divide it [into sounds of syllables].” Similarly in the case ¯ . says Vyasa. at the same time an obscuring (avidya) effect described by both Bhartrhari and Vya sa ¯ ¯ . since no intended meaning (artha) can lack existence. cooks). it has .39 In Yoga Sutra 111: 17. one for each ¯ letter. In all perceived words. as is evidenced by the particular order and unity that makes the utterance of ra-s-a completely distinct from the word s-a-r-a. ¯ ¯ . “Chaitra cooks rice in the vessel on the fire”). Before describing the detailed analysis of this mixed-up state of vaikhari hearing. The listener also distinguishes between these two words in that the hearing of each word-whole is also done by a functional whole. and the alambana pratyaya (sphota). ¯ ¯ . and sphota .g. the single hearing effort of the listener perceives the agent and any other expansions required as being present in vakya sphota (e. sphota). but instead of pratyaya the word jñana is employed . level. samskaras from our language-use in previous lives pervade the manas and the hearing organ so that the natural correlation between a sound pattern of uttered phonemes and its intended artha has become intensified through usage in accordance with the consensus .38 Vya sa explains psychologically the conventional error as a result of the mutual ´ superimposition or mixing up in the mind of the uttered sounds (s abda). Here the same technical terms ´abda and artha are used (corresponding ¯ ¯ s ¯ to the sphota “dhvani” and “artha”). interprets the single consciousness state evoked in the hearing of the word ¯ ¯ as being ultimately the sentence sphota rather than word sphota. we have therefore found a faithful psychological interpretation of Bhartrhari’s thesis that the sentence-meaning is the indivisible unit of speech (vakya¯ .35 .THE YOGA PSYCHOLOGY 33 . or gross. the hearing event has also outlined the very mixing together of dhvani. ¯ brief note will be taken of the way in which Yoga psychology. ing. tion. In Yoga Sutra 1: 42 we find an even more detailed psychological analysis of ¯ vaikhari vak. and the alambana or ground of the hearing is taken to be the gross sound pattern rather than ¯ ¯ the sphota. ¯ hearing. Vya sa says that our taking of the uttered and heard phoneme word pattern .36 The mean¯ ing whole is superimposed upon the parts. but the obscuring avidya of vaikhari ¯ speech is such that the true direction of the superimposition is not realized.40 The above Yoga interpretation of . . in spite of the fact that conventional usage and grammatical analysis seem to suggest a series of single states. in agreement with the Vakyapadi ya. of the uttered words as being one with the meaning is a case of adhyasa. and that ultimately it is the only real (satya).. If the word tree is uttered. ¯ . or unitary sentence mean¯ ¯ . .
Va caspati ¯ . or breath. Dhvani and artha are still distinct and the order of words is present. s ordinary states of consciousness. On the other hand. In line with sphota theory. level of hearing. functions ¯.” ¯ Vya sa finds that the psychological cause of this mixed-up perception of the true ¯ . As the concentrated perception of the word is gradually purified or freed from . the organ of hearing. artha. These three are described by Patañjali as being mixed up . in vaikhari speech. it is described as having the aham kara. On the one hand.keta (conventional word use in previous lives). or sphot a. they are said to be accompanied by a distinct functioning of pran a. made by one’s own imag¯ ´ inative thinking or heard from the traditional schools of thought (dars anas). and jñana represent the divers ¯ sity that there is in one thing and the identity that there is in diverse things.e.) in ¯. ¯ padi ya commentaries. Although not elucidated by either Vya sa or Va caspati. the type (1) situation. ¯ meaning is twofold. ´abda-tanmatra. In the Vakya¯ . on Yogic ¯ introspection. and s ¯ . the process is reversed in hearing with pran a and manas ¯ ¯. Although sequence or predicate relations are suppressed. and (3) there is a predicate relation in which ´abda and artha s s are dominated and appropriated by the jñana “cow. or vaikhari . s ¯ (2) there is a predicate relation in which jñana and artha are dominated and appropri¯ ated by the ´abda “cow”. Such anuma na-dominated hearing would seem to be an error of type (3) with the erro¯ neous element being the “slanting” or “coloring” given the sphot a by the doctrinal . served to individuate the sphot a pattern through the coordination of the ´abdas . manas.34 YOGA AND PSYCHOLOGY to refer to the idea. These types of vikalpa are therefore shown to be the psychological processes producing the high error perception that characterizes the verbal. working to reintegrate the gross differentiations of the sphota pattern at the ear level . the conscious¯ ness state approaches what Bharthari calls madhyama vak. notes that these predicate relations among ´abda. a hearer of the sound pattern “cow” finds. memory (sanketa) and the predicate relations of inference (anumana). or ego. there is the distortion caused by the sam skaras . or superimposed on one another in various predicate relations (vikalpas) so that the intended meaning of the word is not clearly seen. as its only sub¯ stratum and having sequence present but only in a very subtle fashion. Such predicate relations would be experienced because of the finite structural individuations of consciousness through which the speech is ¯ necessarily heard (i.41 Whereas in the speaking act the psychomotor pran a. ´ presuppositions of the particular dars ana heard. would ¯ ¯ seem to be closest to true perception yet still erroneous due to its predicate relations with the other two types. discussed above. and resulting of san in the universally experienced error of type (2) vikalpa. that three possibilities present themselves: (1) there is a predicate relation in which the ´abda and jñana are dominated and appropriated by the artha “cow”. in which the artha predominates.. To such high-error-level perception Yoga applies ¯ the technical term savitarka. tanmatra and vocal organ. pran a. This is the inner hearing as¯ ¯ pect of the complete communication circle the sphot a forms in its “vibratory . manas. ¯. into the less differentiated vibration patterns of the ´abda tanmatra. which means indistinct concentration (samadhi) of the ¯ ¯ consciousness. there are the cognitive inferences (anumanas) based upon the artha. etc. For example. movement” from the buddhi of the speaker to the buddhi of the hearer.
gross atoms (at the vaikhari level) are patterned by the manas and prana into a whole ¯ ¯. he ¯ technically designates it as ´abdapurvayoga. Bhartrhari clearly assumes the practical possibility of such . On the objective (tamas) side. And since both the divine and the corrupt forms are being handed down to us in our inherent va sana s. owing to poor word . etc. the overall obscuration of the sphota-patterned consciousness state decreases as the rajas . skaras (memory traces of conventional word usage). Although the above Yoga analysis provides a psychological description of the meditative. activation of the ´abda tanmatra becomes less and less until the state of pure potential s ¯ is approached. or madhyama. some means of purifying one’s va k is required in order to avoid ¯ ¯ ¯ being trapped forever at the vaikhari level. . by a single effort of consciousness. ¯ senses to the low rajas-high sattva ratio of the ahamkara. or obscuration. . . But characteristics associated with the hearing of the gross sound (dialect. the secondary question of how one’s ordinary vaikhari perception of ¯ va k. of the given sphota stands revealed in the mind (antahkarana) with little distortion . the overall ¯ ¯ preponderance of sattva in the sphota vibration pattern correspondingly increases until .43 Should this happen. ¯ and the antahkarana into the same whole by a single effort of consciousness. speed of speaking. A kind of idealized or criterion description of madhyama in its purest form is of¯ fered by the Yoga analysis of savicara. which comes from the realization of one. a clearer perception of the unified sphota occurs. the distortion decreases as the integration of the heard sphota moves from the high rajas-low sattva ratio of the manas and . Far more powerful will be the intensifying of the artha aspect of . On the subjective (sattva) side. . which is in the confused savitarka state of consciousness. will sam ¯ be greatly reduced. or meditative. but we would also suffer the endless pain engendered by never being able to achieve the ultimate bliss of moksa. place. sphota pattern within the listener’s consciousness. ´ ness with S abdabrahman. ¯ aham kara. ¯ . Va caspati notes that just as the . The distortions still found at the savicara level of inner hearing include notions ¯ of time. not only would ¯ we be prevented from the earthly happiness and merit that result from the correct use of words. will have virtually all dropped away in the savicara citta. samadhi. vak and satisfies the primary task of the psychological in¯ ¯ terpretation. the divine vak (in its pristine state as the pure sam skara ¯ ¯´ series of I s vara’s sattva) has become badly mixed up with corrupt word forms. As the more integrated heights of madhyama vak are realized. a purification of one’s vak. . s ¯ . This second answer is especially important if Bhartrhari is correct in his observation that in many people. Although he does not describe the process required. The influence of san keta ¯ . or true meaning. ¯. while not entirely absent. so also in the savicara state the subtle electron-like ¯ tanmatras are patterned by the prana—although less prana than at the vaikhari level— ¯ ¯. can be raised to a ¯ ¯ higher level.THE YOGA PSYCHOLOGY 35 . ¯ usage in their previous lives. . and causation. Vyasa describes the savicara state as being composed of the essences of ¯ ¯ ¯ all the gross particularizations of the sphot a pattern.42 In savicara the intensity ¯ ¯ ¯ of concentration is such that the sattva is so transparent that the artha. emotional colorations by voice. timbre. ¯ the sattva citta due to magnet-like attraction exerted by the pure samskara series of the buddhitattva sphot a upon the “approaching” and integrating manifestation of the . has yet to be answered. .) .
all that the specific Yoga techniques do is to remove the obstructions within the mind. the point of view of ´abdapurvayoga it is the discipline of satya. Without any attempt at rational analysis. These classic Yoga disciplines will be examined in rela¯ s ¯ tion to Bhartrhari’s concept of ´abdapurvayoga. Although Patañjali lists five yamas. tains that in itself consciousness (citta) is always attempting to move toward moksa. Vyasa points out that since the function of speech is to ¯ communicate one’s understanding to others. .. Svadhyaya. ¯ ¯ They are yama.¯ ¯ tion. Therefore. In addition to repeating scriptural verses in this fashion.is. his habitually distracted state of mind. one simply repeats the verse over and over so as to let the revelatory power inherent within it work upon one’s consciousness. Study here implies not only reading the scripture for its rational content but also saying it meditatively. . not for their injury. or trance. the vasanas.s more power they have to break through the veiling ignorance of one’s mind so as to evoke or reveal the Divine Word that is within.e.36 YOGA AND PSYCHOLOGY ´ ¯ S A B D A P U R VAY O G A A S I N T E R P R E T E D ¯ B Y T H E Y O G A S UT R A S If one is fortunate enough to be born as a sage. The more one repeats such verbalizations of the r. dharana. nor should it create illusion in others if it is true speech (vak). ´ to ensure ascent to Sabdabrahman. do not utter what is true but injurous to others . In Yoga Sutra 11: 29. Yoga psychology main. asanas. of bad word usage) that are preventing consciousness from flowing toward moksa under the motive force of its own inherent teleology. that s ¯ commands special attention. therefore. In terms of the “energy vibration” anal- . Satya is the conformity of one’s speech and mind (citta vrtti) with the thing itself. or self-restraints. and inferred. or concentration.¯ ¯ ¯ ¯ domination by external objects. Word and thought must conform with the facts that have . as a result of the cumulative effect of good word use in previous lives. and the repetition of mantras such as AUM. been seen. Manu is quoted: “Utter what is beneficial to others. heard. or habit ¯ ¯ patterns.”46 In addition to speaking the truth. According to Vya sa. or disciplines. little more than continued practice of vairagya—the ¯ turning away of the mind from all forms of worldly attachment—and abhysa—the habitual steadying of the mind in concentration upon the Vedic sphota—is required . the . and samadhi. or Yogic medita¯ . which when practiced will remove the gross impurities obstructing the perception of sphota in ordinary minds. therefore it must contain no illusion. these s ¯ ¯ . or body postures. or concentrated study (Yoga Sutra II: 32). . and consciousness then passes naturally into the state of moksa. Yoga techniques function simply by removing the obstacles (i. ¯ pranayama. Patañjali lists eight Yoga techniques or practices (yoga nga).. . owing to lack ¯ ¯ of concentration and the obscuring habit patterns of bad word usage (vasanas). after careful enquiry one should speak the truth which will be beneficial to all beings. niyama. there are the powerful cleansing and mind-controlling practices of svadhyaya.45 . dhyana. in¯ ¯ ¯ ¯ ¯ cludes both the recital of passages of scripture. or truthfulness. To this end the Yoga Sutras offer some specific techniques that may well ¯ have been what Bhartrhari had in mind as ´abdapurvayoga. pratyahara. one should also chant the sacred syllable AUM. must ¯ ¯ be overcome. or restraints. or regulation of breath. In this regard. or freedom of the mind from sensory ¯ . from .44 But before the ordinary person can attempt such advanced vairagya and abhyasa. This vak is for the benefit of ¯ ¯ all beings.
or asana. such as heat and cold.50 As another aid to ´abdapurvayoga.¯ ¯ trolled respiration). and therefore the kind of prana required is ¯. When practiced in conjunction with asana. as is the case in rational analysis. Pranayama is defined as the practice ¯ . and withdrawal of senses (pratyahara). As Bhartrhari observes. . By such negative practice plus the three easier kinds of restraint. the process would be as follows. ¯ breath control (pranayama). Mastery of asanas is indicated when the Yogin can remain unaffected by the ¯ pairs of opposites. s ¯ ¯ or ordinary expression of speech and thought. there is a reduction in all gross psychomotor activity. ¯ until the pure sphota is revealed in a flash of insight. by the practice of pra nayama (con¯ . including both external speaking and internal thinking. second or ¯ ¯ ¯ moderate udghata (first udghata doubled). breathing becomes so inhibited that it may virtually cease for long periods. the devotee must further control the vaikhari . By using various specified methods of measurement. resulting in a powerful .¯ ¯ of pausing after each deep inhalation and each deep exhalation. itself to speak. the breath is drawn in forcibly when it has a tendency to go out. which is both immanent within consciousness and externally presented as the authoritative scriptural revelation. In this case. or highest level of consciousness. the Yogin can determine the length of pauses he is achieving and compare them against the established standards: matra. thus freeing consciousness from gross prana activity and assisting in stabilizing the subtle prana ¯. vak is chiefly associated with the internal mental organ (antah karana) and not with ¯ . while meditating upon his verse. While this kind of “study” until recently was virtually unknown in modern Western life. the organs of gross articulation or hearing. first or mild udghata (thirty-six such matras). very subtle. becomes more ¯ meditative. Rather than doing the thinking and revealing the truth by one’s own effort. it was present in the medieval West and is currently being rediscovered in contemporary movements such as Transcendental Meditation and the new interest in Christian Monastic Contemplation. ¯. required for madhyama vak. or instant (the time taken to snap the fingers after turning the hand ¯ ¯ over the knee three times).¯ ¯ chological principle of counteracting unwanted tendencies by the forceful practice of their opposites. ´ sympathetic “vibration” deep within the pas yanti .49 A practical criterion is given whereby the Yogin can test ¯ ¯ himself. . and third or intense udghata (first udghata ¯ ¯ ¯ ¯ tripled). or mantra. In Yoga Sutra II: 49 and 50.47 As vak. The purpose of this practice is said to be the . The taking up of a ¯ . a high degree of external stability and control is achieved over ¯ involvements of consciousness in the gross sequences that characterize the manifestation of vakhari vak. is not complete until it can be maintained without any men¯ tal effort so that all possible movements of the body are restrained. This conception of study aims at freeing one’s mind of obstructions and distractions and simply allowing the power of the Divine Word to work within one’s consciousness. and thrown out forcibly when it has a tendency to go in. here one is quieting one’s own thinking and allowing the Divine Word.48 In Yoga this internalization of concentration is fostered by the three aids of body postures (asanas).¯ ¯ ¯ stable posture. . A special fourth kind of pranayama is achieved by applying the Yogic psy¯ . at the madhyama level the cognition of ¯ ¯ ¯ . Concentrated repetitions reinforce the “sattvic vibrations” which the spoken Vedic words induce within the mental organ (antah kararna).THE YOGA PSYCHOLOGY 37 ogy used previously to describe the hearing of the spoken word.
¯ ¯ . just as when the king bee (queen bee in the West) settles down. sam yama (perfected contemplation). when consciousness is restricted and concentrated. of meditation. all the other bees follow. that there is a direct connection between respiration and mental states. This Yoga ¯ ¯ ¯ analysis would seem to correspond with Bhartrhari’s basic requirements for . Pratyahara is defined as the disciplined withdrawal of the ¯ ¯ ¯ ¯ senses from their preoccupation with external manifestations so as to become focused with all of consciousness in single-pointed contemplation of the internal artha. Mastery at this madhyama level of vak is indi¯ . so. dhyana. ¯ ¯ along with the practice of asanas and pranayama. dharana s ¯ ¯ . which would equal ¯ .¯ . Vya sa ¯ offers the analogy that. dhyana. of the sphot a. occurs when the dhyana loses its subject-object ¯ ¯ distinction. ¯ In the above discussion it has been shown how the practices detailed by the Yoga Sutras purify consciousness to the level of single-pointedness (ekagrata). dhyana may be thought of as lasting as long as twelve dharanas. realizes concentration of consciousness on a single object. that is samadhi. which.55 Vijñana Bhiksu sug¯ ¯ ¯ .54 For the practice of ´abdapurvayoga.¯ concentration. ´abdapurvayoga—the rising above the gross expression of prana and the cutting of the s ¯ ¯. when fixed concentration shines forth only in the form of ¯ ¯ the object being contemplated and empty of all duality. or “fixed concentration.¯ ¯ ¯ as conjoint means for achieving the same end.57 It is the continuation of the mental effort to clearly perceive the sphot a. As Vyasa puts it. or fixed ¯ . when all the functions of the organs are suspended. ¯ . or trance contemplation.” As Eliade observes. described as the direct aids to Yoga.51 Only then is the mind judged to be truly fit for . A further aid to turning the flow of consciousness away from the gross manifestations of uttered speech and toward the sphota’s internal artha (meaning) aspect is the . Dasgupta helpfully clarifies the necessary relationship between dharana and ¯ .¯ one hundred forty-four pranayamas. ¯ ¯ . knots that bring about the differentiation of vak.¯ would be the fixed concentration of consciousness upon the artha. Dharana without pratyahara or ¯ .¯ . Samadhi. Yoga practice of pratyahara. the sense organs are also withdrawn and concentrated. are: dharana. pratyahara (withdrawal of senses). ¯ ¯ They represent three stages of the same process. is fundamental for Yoga. and samadhi.¯ ¯ ¯ ¯ pratyahara without dharana would both be a fruitless endeavor.¯ ¯ ¯ ¯ cated by the lack of intrusion of any other mental state (citta-vrtti) during this period . or trance contemplation.¯ ¯ Dhyana is the continuance or uninterrupted flow of fixed concentration upon ¯ artha in the stream of consciousness. gests that in terms of elapsed time.”52 This principle. or meaning.53 ¯ The last three practices.38 YOGA AND PSYCHOLOGY destruction of the impurities.¯ ¯ ¯ or external expression of vak. .56 ¯ . results in control over the vaikhari .58 Va caspati ¯ . which is given the technical name . such as delusions caused by traces of corrupt word usage. or yogic meditation. a remark of Bhoja states clearly ¯ the underlying principle: “All the functions of the organs being preceded by that of respiration—there being always a connection between respiration and consciousness in their respective functions—respiration. or sattvic. This is pratya hara. Vijña na Bhiks u indicates that in terms of elapsed time. dharana must last as long as twelve pranayamas. that clear perception of the sphota becomes possible. Dharana and pratyahara must be practiced together ¯ ¯ ¯ . from consciousness until it becomes so luminous.
¯ ¯ samadhi are all part of the same process of which the last one is perfection. ¯ ¯ . occurs when the samadhi is freed ¯ . grossly manifested at the vaikhari level and subtly ¯ . therefore. and the predicate relations of jñana by s ¯ inference or association. allowing the thing-itself (svarupa) to shine forth in itself alone. or gross perception of the sphot a. A kalpana or two-termed relation is a distinction ¯ between the concentration and the object upon which it is fixed. potential obstructions arising from the unsteadiness of the body and the mind are controlled by asana and pra nayama. or subtle pratibha of the sphota. to the unitary perception of the sphota. ¯ where the mind has fused itself with or become one with the object. perceived in its formal pattern or unity through the senses. ´ and is the pas yanti level of vak.59 ¯ ¯ Throughout the Va kyapad ¯ ya analysis of the levels of vak. and ¯ . At the lower levels of vaikhari ¯ . For ´abdapurvayoga this would mark the transition from the dualistic experis ¯ ence of sphota as dhvani and artha.THE YOGA PSYCHOLOGY 39 further clarifies the point as follows. and madhyama. the last . However. ¯. is an outgrowth ¯ ¯ from the savitarka samadhi. three stages are separated. two qualities of prajña are described: nirvitarka. It is this pas yanti state of sphot a ¯ ¯ ¯ ¯ . And ¯ ¯ .¯ ¯ exhibit such subject-object distinction. and all the Yoga practices must work ¯ s ¯ together for its achievement. theoretically. as the Yogin tries to withdraw his or her senses and focus the mind. ¯ ¯ ¯ . the mind even ceases to think that it is thinking the sphot a itself. sciousness (citta) begin to flow evenly without any disruption. the conventional usage of ´abda. ¯ In this stage the svarupa (sphota) is directly intuited as having just that form which it ¯ . When the lower practices (yogangas) are combined with the higher samadhi forms. s ¯ . ¯ . ´ ´ acterizes the pratibha of the pas yanti level of vak. Finally. manifested at the madhyama level. or prajña.61 The duality of subject and object is overcome. But for the ultimate end. and nirvicara. It is fitting. from memory. . Success is ¯ indicated by the shining forth of prajña (insight or direct perception of the sphot a). Here the samadhi knowledge. The same sort of heuristic continuum is also envisaged in the Yoga analysis of the various levels of samadhi. Nirvitarka. through the steadying of the mind on one sphot a. It cannot be achieved unless. it seems clear that ¯ i ¯ Bhartrhari’s concept is that these levels are heuristic levels on a continuum rather than . or ¯ ¯ gross pratibha of the sphota. has in itself and nothing more. dhyana. Dharana and dhyana ¯ .60 This means that within the ¯ ´ pas yanti pratibha there will be degrees of clearness in the unitary perception of sphota. which makes certain the attainment of happiness here and beyond. correct usage alone is not enough. Patañjali makes clear that in practice dharana. the correct use of words through practices such as satya helps ¯ to produce spiritual merit (dharma). In this state there is no self-awareness but only a direct intuition—knowing by becoming one with the object. which char¯ . discrete hierarchial stages. when samadhi is being analyzed in its ¯ ¯ nondualistic or pratibha state. does con. Samadhi is the goal of the ´abdapurvayoga. . Citta has become one with the object so that the object no longer appears as an object of consciousness. however. ¯ ´abdapurvayoga then opens the way to the ultimate end and the realization of moksa.¯ ¯ then only gradually. It is of the grosser vaikhari manifestation of the sphota as ¯ ¯ . Although. all duality is absent in samadhi. samadhi that provides the psychological process by which the ´abda devotee may make ¯ s ´ his ascent toward moksa—union with S abdabrahman. leaving only the steady transformation of citta in the form of the object of its contemplation. that in the Yoga Sutras.
the ´abda Yogin’s citta becomes so purified that the prajña obtained is perfectly s ¯ pure and considered to be absolute knowledge of the sphota. From the Yoga viewpoint. The prajña. and causality disappear. through the process of errors. any remaining obstas ¯ cles are removed. tion is described in a more technical psychological fashion. or highest pratibha. . this situa. place. the great sages are s s . and the inherent telos within consciousness itself finds moksa. clear. which is Patañjali’s highest samprajñata or “seeded” stage. r. ¯ of any remaining negative sam skaras. When the ´abda Yogin remains in the concentrated insight of the nirvicara state. as follows. the mind becomes so much identified with the subtle aspects of the s ¯ savicara sama dhi that notions of time. This nirvicara ¯ ¯ samadhi. error perception of the sphota at the opposite end of the hearer’s continuum from the . no. or true knowledge of the word. but unlike the more ordinary ´abda Yogin.62 In this samadhi ¯ ¯ . the ongoing s ¯ impact of this insight (prajña) upon consciousness effectively restricts the emergence ¯ . said to have been able to directly perceive the noumenal sphota without having to go . that is. When. It is the final. or . ´ oneness with S abdabrahman. . or knowledge revealed by the direct per¯ ception of the sphot a. . nirvicara. by constant ¯ ¯ ¯ ´abdapurvayoga. seems equivalent ¯ ¯ ´ . and it gives the power to act in accordance with that knowledge.63 It is the same process by which the ¯ .64 It is through both of these capacities that the pratibha perception of ¯ sphota provides the means for moksa realization. high-error initial experiences of the phonemes at the vaikhari level. to Bhartrhari’s vis ist opahita.is cognize the Vedas. is described as having a twofold character: it gives the special . By such ´abdapurvayoga. and the ¯ ¯ antah karana becomes one with the sattvic sphota. ..40 YOGA AND PSYCHOLOGY Nirvicara samadhi develops naturally from the meditative concentration (sav¯ ¯ icara) that was previously found to characterize madhyama vak. state.
Is desirous of another man. Kosambi. . plus the dating of Bhartr hari as prior to the fifth century CE (on the . depends for its strength on the Chinese pilgrim I-tsing’s suggestion that the Bhartr hari of the Vakyapad¯ya was a Buddhist.3 Kosambi’s argument. the same Bhartr hari who composed the Vakyapad¯ya and a commentary on the ¯ i . Who in his turn adores some other woman. This ancient tradition identifying Bhartr hari the poet with ¯ ¯. But this woman takes delight in me . has led recent scholarship to . Bhartr hari . In addition to establishing himself in the classical Indian tradition as a grammarian and a metaphysician. Kale2) and more recently by D.g. .. . R. 41 . . Damn her! Damn him! The God of love! The other woman! And Myself !1 Tradition seems to have consistently maintained that Bhartr hari. D. in nature. the contents of that work are thoroughly Brahmanical ¯ . is also well known for his Sanskrit poetry. Bhartr hari is . and having established a basis for literary criticism. One of his verses recounts the experience with the depth and compactness that characterizes his poetry. the poet.a basis of Bhartr hari quotations in the works of Dinn¯ ga). although meticulously researched. Mahabhasya of Patañjali. This. Bhartr hari the grammarian was called into question by scholars writing around 1900 . . She who is the constant object of my thought Is indifferent to me. M. Kosambi felt that there must be two . was . (e. different Bhartr haris. identified as a king who was discouraged by the inconstancy of women and was thus led to renounce the world of sensuous experience. however. However.4 Yoga in the ´ Vairagya-Sataka of Bhartrhari ¯ . In popular Indian thought. Bhartr hari the poet shows no trace of Buddhism. Since ¯ i .
suggests that “the stanzas may be compared to the miniature paintings which illustrate the manuscripts of medieval India.4 Not only does the author of this book adopt the traditional viewpoint on this question. or “Hundred Verses on Renunciation. Bhartr hari’s poetry. The . characterizes the householder stage of life.5 A ´ataka. is a hundred detached verses having a common s theme such as vairagya. art. ¯ B H A RT RH A R I T H E P O E T . or renunciation. cient India that may still be found upon the lips of Indians today. or rasa. and finally the stage of the wandering hermit or holy man. ´ focus the Yoga psychology assumed in the verses of the Vairagya-S ataka. The fact that these very old poems are still a part . especially the Vairagya.” is a poem of an¯ . who has successfully translated his verses into English. In the Vairagya. of the consciousness of contemporary India is one important reason for their study. in addition to introducing the reader to Bhartr hari’s poetry. which. From this study valuable insight may be gained as to how Indian religion. Bhartr hari’s poetry captures this discontent in its revulsion . however. most often these two aspects have remained quite disconnected. along with the pursuit of worldly possessions and power. also occurs in his poetry and is further evidence for the identity thesis. attraction to sensual beauty and the yearning for liberation from it. Barbara Miller. in Sanskrit poetry. Each four-line verse is intended to convey a ¯ complete mood. and to stand on its own as an aesthetic entity. one’s spiritual development through these stages. Perhaps even more important.42 YOGA AND PSYCHOLOGY re-examine the identity thesis of the classical tradition.”6 In India the life of an individual was ideally divided into four different stages: the student stage. The Vairagya is the ¯ third in a trilogy of poems by Bhartr hari. Bhartr hari’s poems reflect . Thus. Profusion is forced into a miniature mould. ´ Bhartr hari’s Vairagya-S ataka. The S rñgara-S ataka sensitively evokes the . verses are characterized by the amount of complex thought and detail that he compresses into a simple metrical pattern. other two poems are entitled the N¯ti-S ataka (on politics and ethics). erotic mood of love. . is the way in which both the world-transcending ideals of Indian religion and the Indian experience of sensual love are held in tension within the poems. each one hundred verses in length. But even within this stage there are seeds of discontent that motivate the sensitive soul toward the withdrawal and spiritual discipline of the final two stages. the withdrawal from worldly life into the forest. includes both the sensuous and the sense-renouncing aspects of the Indian consciousness in a way that presents a rounded exposure of India to the modern reader. and the i ´ ´ ¯ ´ S rñgara-S ataka (on passionate love). the householder stage. The Ni ´ataka comments on the life ¯ti-S ´ ¯ ´ of worldly possessions and political power. Bhartr hari presents us with the creative tension between a profound ¯ . and culture can be at once so sensuous and so spiritual. this chapter takes as its point of . the mould is then expanded by exploiting the suggestive overtones (dhvani) of words and images. Bhartr hari’s . While the West has identified both full enjoyment of the senses and the rigorous renunciation of the senses with India. ¯ . but it is suggested that Bhartr hari’s assumption of Patañjali’s classical Yoga in the Vakyapadi (see chapter 2) ¯ ¯ya .
Patañjali’s analysis brings out philosophical and psychological dimensions that parallel descriptions found in Bhartr hari’s . Would be less treacherous Were it not for intoxicating glances ´ ¯ ´ Waylaying us at every turn. ¯ In chapter 3 of this book it was suggested that the Yoga psychology assumed by ¯ i ¯ Bhartr hari in his Vakyapad¯ya is the Yoga of Patañjali. ¯ Your bounds. It has long ¯ been the contention of Indian literary critics that the aesthetic consciousness (rasadhvani) evoked by poetry transcends the dry and partial descriptions of the scholars. slokas 35 and 43) . therefore they are classed as kles as. Bhartr hari’s Vairagya is also . ¯ ¯ passion (raga). poetry.´ ¯ Y O G A I N T H E VA I R AG Y A . each of these is found to end in suffering. ¯ ´ . And winged by long black lashes.7 On close examination. egoism (asmita). Samsara. Release from the worldly life of sense enslavement is accomplished through the discipline of Yoga. or con´ stantly changing painful states of consciousness. Retire in timidity Or cling to modest ways—only until The seductive arrow-glances of amorous women Fall on his heart. which begins with a diagnosis of the states of consciousness making up ordinary human experience (kles as) and then details the eight ´ steps to release (yogan gas). Avidya is the beginningless ignorance that obscures the inherent omniscience of ¯ ¯ consciousness from view.S ATA K A 43 against the sordidness of worldly life and in its awareness that the delights of passionate love are at once beautiful and enslaving. Here the ascetic finds the dispassionate tranquillity of the forest as he passes his days in meditation on the bank of a mountain river. (S r ñgara-S ataka. A man may tread the righteous path.8 Avidya is ¯ ´ . and this therefore is the dominant theme throughout the ´ Vairagya-S ataka. Shot from the bow of her brow. Patañjali describes avidya as the root kles a of citta. Be master of his senses. Glances drawn to her ear. The poetic parallels may well convey a more comprehensive understanding of the Yogic experience than the sutras and commentaries alone can provide. ´ In the end it is through the renunciation described in the Vairagya-S ataka that release ¯ from such worldly desires may be achieved. DIAGNOSIS OF THE HUMAN CONDITION In his analysis of the states of consciousness (citta vr tti) Patañjali finds that all ordi. The Vairagya presents a poetic picture of ¯ the renunciation of the last two stages of life. ¯. . firmly based on that same Yoga. nary experience may be divided into five types: ignorance (avidya). disgust (dves a) and clinging to life (abhinives a). The path which leads beyond .
lose all control and become slaves ´ to them.”13 Dves a. That Brahman. who has [purged the ignorance from his mind]. the pure. That prison of torment! The course reaching beyond toward bliss . ¯ My face is graven with wrinkles My head is marked with grey. sensual indulgence only results in a constant craving for more. Due to the insatiability of desire. Thus. ¯ . and the not-self (anatman) to be the eternal. Even the ravages of time cannot remove us from the grip of avidya. (sloka 8) Asmita. ¯ . such remembrance is indeed painful and urges one toward the Yogic path of release. Abandon the depths of sensuous chaos. for the Yogin. Raga. even in error. the painful (duhkha). ¯ ¯ In sloka 18. says Patañjali. with the power of intelligent discrimination should avoid the hook. Stumble on what is pure And the true part of yourself. You traverse the sky. surable. and the self. is in the end seen to give only temporary pleasure.12 The poet brings out the full fury of raga by comparing the ¯ ´ condition of an ignorant man with that of the enlightened Lord Siva. My limbs are withered and feeble— My craving alone keeps its youth. “Ordinary persons when they give themselves up to enjoyment. however. But Siva.14 For the sensitive poetic mind.10 The human being. In the poetic vision of the Vairagya. but the power of ignorant passion is so deluding that he or she greedily eats the bait. the plea¯ .44 YOGA AND PSYCHOLOGY defined philosophically as the taking of the noneternal (anitya). is a thirst ¯ ¯ for pleasure by one who has previously experienced pleasures (in this or previous lives) and remembers them. You descend to nether worlds. so even when satiety comes they cannot detach themselves. with its sensual attachment to objects. is unaffected by them. You roam the horizon With restless mobility my mind! Why do you never. avidya also appears as the root of suffering.11 In sloka 70. every kind of worldly experience. is the opposite of raga. through which You would reach your final bliss? It is from such deluded egoism that raga springs forth. results from the taking of one’s body and thoughts to be one’s ¯ true self (atman). every pleasure is seen as a pain in the making. or aversion. or egoism. which having experienced and remembered pain feels anxiety for its removal. avidya is depicted as an insect that stupidly jumps into the fire or a fish ¯ that through ignorance takes the baited hook.9 Through the Yogic analysis. It also springs from the ego-sense. Bhartr hari captures the meaning intended by Patañjali. the impure (asuchi).
sciousness by analogy to the flow of a river. Whose waves are craving. Abhinives a. creating the whirlpool of existence called samsara. Let ascetics who cross To the opposite shore Exult in their purified minds. It is an ¯ endless craving for one’s self. drink. In poetic terms the same complex situation is described by Bhartr hari: .”15 Bhartr hari describes the body that .´ ¯ Y O G A I N T H E VA I R AG Y A . In the Yoga Sutras. and the peaceful purity of mind realized. etc. When one has dammed up the flow of citta toward objects seen (women. is found by Patañjali to be rooted in avidya and to spring from egoism. . a tattered coat upon a stick. Hope is a river Whose water is desire. Anxiety carves a deep ravine And makes the whirlpool of delusion Makes it difficult to ford.18 Within itself. and these make consciousness flow in the op. the changing movement ¯ of mental states (citta-vrttis) is said to be like a river whose flow is in two directions: to.) by . then citta will flow toward good. In an image remarkably similar to Yeats’s “An aged man is but a paltry thing. The treatment offered by both Bhartr hari and Patañjali is the renunciation of worldly desires by the con. (sloka 10) Such is the diagnosis of our ordinary mental state with its polluting kles as. power.S ATA K A 45 Can instantly allay all pain. 19 in discriminative knowledge.¯ vairagya. the whirlpool stilled. or release from samsara by practice ¯ .¯ posite direction. Passions are crocodiles.”16 Patañjali remarks that this fear of death is found in both the stupid and . centration of citta through Yoga. both Patañjali and Bhartr hari describe con.¯ the wise and gives evidence that the round of birth and rebirth (samsara) must have 17 been experienced by all. Conjectures are birds Destroying the tree of resolve.¯ Within the constant circle of samsara. Initiate then a peaceful mood! Renounce your gamboling unsteady ways! Forsake the ephemeral mundane passions! Rest placid now. . Now the ´ question arises as to what treatment can be taken so that the pollution may be purged. But citta is polluted by the karmic seeds of past thoughts and actions. ward good and toward evil. “can raise itself but slowly on the staff ” yet “still startles at the thought of dissolution by death. food. and opened the flood gates toward moks a. and this can never be totally lost. shrinking from death and clinging to ´ life. my thoughts! (sloka 63) But such anxiety and aversion are often countered by the strong impulsion within ignorant egoism for its own survival. pure citta has an inherent tendency to flow in the direction of good.
Disparity’s guise is deceiving. While you luxuriate in silken splendor.¯ our ordinary mental state. asteya. Patañjali lists five yamas. my contentment is equal to yours. brahmacarya. results in the purg¯. .20 The eight steps in the practice of yoga ´ listed by Patañjali21 have been introduced in earlier chapters. poetry.¯ truthfulness. Do reverence before the venerable. splitting off the offending kles as from citta. And bear compassion for all creatures . sloka 3: ¯ti-S Refrain from taking life. and aparigraha. or . or the practice of austerities. Samtos a is described by Patañjali as the absence . The first step on the path of Yogic treatment is yama. which when practiced will remove the gross karmic impurities from . . Together with the above restraints. meditating on Brahman. or nonstealing. or the absence of avarice. .”24 Other than ahims a. hunger and thirst.46 YOGA AND PSYCHOLOGY T R E AT M E N T O F T H E H U M A N C O N D I T I O N Patañjali states that the practice of the yogan gas. those who live in mountain caves. Give timely alms within your means . the Yogin must observe a series of niyamas. or noninjury. The cobra and mongoose will lie down together beside the Yogin. Now let him be called a pauper Who bears insatiable greed.25 It is sensitively captured in Bhartr hari’s . consists in bearing with equanimity the pairs of opposites such as heat and cold. Ahimsa.22 The test for having mastered ahims ¯ is that the .26 The poet concurs: “Nothing is good for the wise in this world excepting the practice of austerities!”27 For Patañjali. of desire for more than the necessities of life. or positive practices of body and mind. the Supreme Light. What can it mean to be “wealthy” or “poor”? (sloka 53) Tapas. the yamas include the practices of satya. or self-disciplines.23 Or as Bhartr hari puts it. I dwell content in the hermit’s dress of bark. “Blessed are . or steps to Yoga. Dam the torrent of your craving. while birds devoid of fear perch on their laps and drink the tear drops of bliss that they shed in meditation. But when a mind rests content. Speak words of truth. These are effectively captured in a verse from the Ni ´ataka. Still. The purifying action of the yoga n gas is likened to an ax ¯. is the root yama and requires nonviolence in thought as well as action. . or control of sexual desire.a peacefulness of one’s citta will affect all other persons and animals within one’s presence so that they give up their natural hostility to one another. ing of karmic impurities from the stream of consciousness so that its inherent omniscience may shine forth. . Never envy other men’s wealth.
the vision of the unrelenting ap. Underlying this practical psychology is the theoretical analysis of how actualized karmas create a potency.31 In sutras II: 33 and 34. or body postures. fearful ´ ´ ´ of the miseries of birth and death. Siva. so that all work is done not for one’s own self but for God.33 With all possible body movements restrained. is revered by Patañjali30 and Bhartr hari. Such habitual behavior or thought patterns are self-reinforcing in nature and can be broken only by the self-conscious act of creating sufficient opposing karmas so . Is likened to the moon. worldly prosperity. AUM) that lead to release.g. dank with urine. In states of emotional arousal (especially of the passionate variety so clearly ex´ ¯ ´ amined in Bhartrhari’s Srñgara-Sataka) respiration is uneven and fast. the Yogin has to master controlled breathing. . . or the study ¯ ¯ of Vedic texts and the repetition of syllables (e. Mark how this despicable form Is flourished by the poets. . ¯ that even the unactualized samskaras will be rendered impotent. or . Siva.35 Regulation of breathing is based on the principle that there is a direct connection between the rate of respiration and mental states. Her face. captures this insight but at the same time seems to identify this difficulty as being a particular weakness of the poet.32 ¯ Asanas. . while in one who . the repetition of Vedic vows results in spiritual peace. crying aloud ‘Siva. This is known to the modern neurophysiologist and is easily observable by any layperson.29 Svadhyaya.’”34 Along with the practice of stable sitting. Patañjali states a most important psychological insight ¯ (today called “behavior therapy”) which seems to be a basic assumption for the practice of Yoga in all Indian systems. are said To rival the elephant’s trunk. (sloka 16) Of course this kind of “cultivating of opposites” can be practiced on the male body with equal success if the Yogin happens to be a woman. Her thighs. himself beset by doubts or desires. When a yogin while performing his yogan gas finds ¯. Bhartr hari not only ¯ ¯ . and easy to maintain.. proach of death leads him to take refuge in the Lord alone.28 For Bhartr hari. Toward the end of the Vairagya-Sataka we find the poet adopting an asana: “Sitting ¯ ¯ in peaceful posture. he should counteract such perverse thoughts (vitarkas) by the cultivation of their opposites (pratipaksa bhavana ).´ ¯ Y O G A I N T H E VA I R AG Y A . it is clearly assumed in the repeated urgings toward a quiet and calm mind. Are compared to golden bowls.¯ ¯ though this practice is not specifically mentioned in the poem. during the nights when all sounds are stilled into silence . ¯ samskara. those fleshy protuberances. Al¯ . Her breasts. the citta is left free for its efforts toward concentra´ tion.S ATA K A 47 ¯s I´varapranidhana is the offering up of all actions to the Lord. . The sutra describes ¯ the kind of posture required as being stable. The poet maintains that while other vows may lead to . . are prescribed by Patañjali to control the restless activity of one’s body—a necessary prerequisite to the controlling of one’s mind. or pranayama. a vile receptacle of phlegm. motionless. . for the repetition of the same act or thought to be laid down in the subconscious citta where the appropriate moment for a new actualization of the karma is awaited.
words are quite inadequate. take . or withdrawal of the senses from attachment to external objects. “Desist.37 As Vyasa puts it. pressing this experience: O Earth. ¯ .38 In this state there is no self-awareness but only direct intuition. At this rarefied height. Patañjali technically terms the experience nirvicara samadhi. final stage of transcendent consciousness is reached. On the banks of the heavenly river! .39 Bhartr hari. my brother! here is my last salutation to you with clasped hands! Having cast away Infatuation with its wonderful power. and causality and becomes one with the essence of its object of concentration. or Yogic med¯.48 YOGA AND PSYCHOLOGY is concentrating it becomes rhythmical and slow. . or trance concentration) are not easily separated. In such concentration there is also pratyahara. when fixed concentration ¯ shines forth only in the form of the object being contemplated and empty of all duality. Dwell in devotion. O heart.¯ ¯ itation. perhaps comes close to ex. place. I now merge in the Supreme Brahman. knows by fusing itself with the object. my thoughts. the intended object is the Lord (Is vara for Patañjali. Purge your delusion ´ Find joy in moon-crested Siva. get thee to the state of thy Atman. a . It is the state achieved when by constant practice the mind loses the ¯ ¯ notions of time. dhyana. my friend! O Water. (sloka 100) . by means of an amplitude of pure knowledge resplendent with merits developed through my association with you all. . individual words must ultimately be transcended. And for both the Yoga ´ ¯´ Sutras and the Vairagya-S ataka. my good relative! O Sky. from the troublous labyrinth of sense-objects. (sloka 64) For Bhartr hari. my mother! O Wind. and instead ¯ ¯ the inward focusing of the sense organs and all of citta on the atman. ¯ citta. or consciousness. through intense devotional concentration on Brahman as the Lord. Patañjali says ¯ that they represent three stages of the same process in which the subject-object duality of ordinary cognition is gradually purified until “oneness with the object” (knowing by becoming one with) is achieved. or true self. my father! O Fire. and samadhi. through the poetic form. ¯ ¯ ´ Siva for Bhartr hari). that path of (highest) good which is capable of bringing about in a moment the destruc¯ tion of endless troubles. While useful in raising us to this height (see chapter 2). . As ¯ Bhartr hari puts it. that is samadhi.”36 The last three yogan gas (dharan a. or fixed concentration.
Part II yoga and western psychology .
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and the unconscious are intimately intertwined. is nothing more than the sum total of all stored-up karmic traces from the thoughts and actions done in this and previous lives. This is especially notable if a comparison is made of the conception of karma found in Patañjali’s Yoga Sutras1 and the views of the contemporary psychologists Sig¯ mund Freud2 and Carl Jung. ¯ (samskara) remains in the unconscious as a predisposition towards doing the same action or thought again in the future. and the unconscious is reviewed. Yoga is dismissed as yet another version of Eastern metaphysics and mysticism. bursts forth as an impulsion toward the same kind of action or thought from which it originated. in Yoga terminology. we think first and then act. Many similarities with the ancient Yoga of Patañjali are found when the development of recent thinking regarding memory. and thought is of psychological importance. through the exercise of free choice. like a seed that has been watered and given warmth. motivation.5 Freud.3 For both the ancient Yoga of Patañjali and the modern psychology of Freud and Jung. in fact.4 The unconscious. motivation. But there is one promising point of contact between Yoga and modern psychology. resulting in a reinforcing of the memory trace within the unconscious. If. All that is required is that the appropriate set of circumstances present themselves. ¯ strengthening of the predisposition (sam skara). an apparent parallel between the modern psychology of memory and the Yoga notion of karma. and the karmic memory trace. Jung. The karmic memory trace . and Yoga on Memory Modern Western psychology has rejected Yoga as a valid form of psychology. namely. Karma is described by Patañjali as a memory trace recorded in the unconscious by any action or thought a person has done. then that karmic seed is allowed to flower. Sufficient repetitions of the same action or thought produce a . The Westerner should especially note that for Yoga a thought is as real as an action. Such a karmic habit pattern or vasana can be taken as the Yoga equiv¯ ¯ ¯ ¯ alent for the modern psychological notion of motivation. Modern psychological theory seems to take its rise from two quite opposing 51 . memory. in the Yoga view. and the establishing of a “habit pattern” or vasana. one chooses to act on the impulse and do the same action or thought again.
its nature is active. there is one aspect of Yoga that is quite out of step with Leibniz. ¯ ilar to the Yoga understanding of samskaras. to have a good deal in common with the Yoga notion of karma.6 In this way Woodworth extends the simple memory stimulus-mechanism of Locke’s psychology so that motivation or drive is also . built up over a ¯ ¯ beginningless series of previous lives. although originally activated by motivating stimuli external to them. As we shall see. Woodworth. Thus for Leibniz. which is not a problem in Yoga.5 Locke assumed the mind of the individual to be a tabula rasa. Whereas for the Lockean psychologists. after continued activation. Patañjali’s Yoga accounts for memory and motivation in terms of this and all previous lives. or memory traces. the mind is essentially passive in nature. or habit patterns. each newborn child begins life with an empty mind. which the newborn child evidences immediately at birth and before any learning has taken place. and in some ways is closer to the Yoga notion of vasanas. While Woodworth’s notions of memory and drive seem restricted to the personal experience of one lifetime. or blank wax tablet. is the question of how to account for the many drives. as it were. since the ideas grow from petites perceptions. a basic difference with Patañjali’s Yoga. on balance. therefore. become a drive. Although the Leibnizian tradition in modern psychology seems. into their full flowering or actualization in conscious awareness. noted that the stimulus-response traces. Yoga psychology emphasizes that at birth the mind (citta) carries with it a storehouse of vasanas. ¯ accounted for. which shines forth undimmed once all obstructing karma has been removed. in addition to the above similarity. the Yoga notion of the purus a. as for Yoga psychology. and the Gestalt theorists) is based on the assumptions of Leibniz. are the notions of inherent psychological structures and their resulting drives as well as various degrees of conscious awareness. at birth and to acquire content passively through the impact of sensation and the interaction or association of traces left behind by such stimuli. while in the view of Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz. that is. which has dominated most British and American psychology. and their followers encounter in this regard. According to John Locke. The Leibnizian approach in modern psychology. has. The Lockean viewpoint. Freud. there are degrees of consciousness. which are to some degree unconscious. Robert Woodworth. or instinctual patterns of behavior. whether it be of a Lockean or Leibnizian . with its assumption that the mind is genetically active rather than passive. Such a notion of the self seems totally foreign to modern psychology. unchanging and eternal. The difficulty which Locke. or self . may presently. just as in Yoga the samskara is not merely a memory trace but also an impulse toward further action. but as a consciousness composed of inherent seed ideas which actively structure incoming stimuli and in so doing achieve greater actualization and motive force. This Lockean view of mental activity as a result of traces upon the “wax tablet” of the mind is sim. a tabula rasa.52 YOGA AND PSYCHOLOGY philosophic conceptions of the human mind. left within the citta (mind) by previous actions or thoughts. a child begins life not as a passive wax tablet. the dean of American psychology in the 1920s and 1930s. For Leibniz. seems to avoid this last-mentioned difficulty. Much of the dynamic ¯ ¯ psychology which has characterized European thinking (for example.7 Implicit in the thought of Leibniz. as an individual pure consciousness. much of this thinking is carried over into the psychological theories of Freud and Jung. Brentano.
. although karma predisposes one to act or think in a particular way. . it is the problem of freedom and determinism. then it appears that there is much in common between the Leibnizian tradition within modern psychology and Patañjali’s Yoga.”12 Sir John Eccles. . that receptor excitation repeatedly transmitted through the nervous system lowers synaptic resistance.9 The problem which Freud poses is exactly the one which the Yoga notion of karmic memory . seeks to answer. J U N G . still freedom of choice is said to be retained.13 In terms of the actual neurological processes involved. ‘one-trial learning’ and inability to allow subsequent modification characterizes the behaviour of the system. Freud asks the question: how can an organism remain sensitive to new excitations. This would explain that there is a tendency for the replay of the spatiotemporal patterns of neural activity that occurred in the initial experience. the retentive capacities of the network are overemphasized. as the point of focus. a grooving or bahnung of transmission pathways in the nervous system.10 From the perspective of modern neurophysiological psychology. “then the behaviour of the net is continually modified—i. such as Karl Pribram. In relation to karma. have moved away from the simple (Lockean) spinal reflex model of memory to a Freudian (Leibnizian) theory which combines memory and motivation in a way very similar to the Yoga notions of karma. Pribram puts the problem this way: if the receptive aspects of a neural network are emphasized.e. supports such a theory of memory and identifies the probable neurophysiological processes involved. according to this notion.”8 Karl Pribram takes us back to a little-known aspect of Freud’s thought.F R E U D . it is the paradox that. on the other hand. If. . or sam skaras. In his article “The Foundation of Psychoanalytic Theory: Freud’s Neuropsychological Model. FREUD AND KARMA Neurophysiological psychologists. which has become popular in neurophysiology. . there is some structural basis in the way of changed connectivities in the neuronal machinery. ¯ traces. in his review of research findings. “Memory is. The neurobiological level of memory is illustrated by a study of synaptic structure and synaptic action under conditions either of enhanced activity or of disuse. the net is stimulus bound—and it retains little. or self. from its apparent entrapment in the karma of prakrti) are taken . namely. This replaying in the brain would be accompanied by remembering in the mind. It is attractive to conjecture that with memories enduring for years. A N D YO G A O N M E M O RY 53 cast.. But if the karmic processes of Yoga prior to the realization of kaivalya (final release of the purus a.” containing the view that at the neurophysiological level motive and memory are intimately intertwined. Freud abandons the view that sensory and memory mechanisms are neurologically separable and adopts the idea.”11 In addressing this problem. Freud’s “Scientific Project. Eccles concludes on the basis of experiments that there is good evidence that the spine synapses on the dendrites of . . yet at the same time develop the stabilities necessary to retain traces of prior stimulation? On the philosophical level. In this way it is shown that there are modifiable synapses that could be responsible for memory because they are greatly enhanced by activity and depleted by disuse.
which would have as its neural basis a significant tamas. as resulting from repetitions of a particular mem¯ ¯ . Consequently. The above theorizing by Freud and experimentation by Eccles may well serve as . Every neuron must be presumed to have several paths of connections with other neurons. or vasana. people do not behave as if all paths are equally likely. perhaps parallel to enlarged dendritic spines of modern physiology.and long-term memory.15 Their focus is still on possible memory mechanisms located at the synapse. ¯ the modern explanation of the physiological character of karmic samskaras and vasanas. . By contrast. too. function in the various karmic states. and selection is to a large degree the result of memory traces of prior experience. or constituents of consciousness (sattva. particular motivational patterns must be provided for in the functioning of the neural network. or samskara.14 It is suggested that increased potentiation could result from either growth (hypertrophy) of the dendritic spine synapses or branching of the spines to form secondary spine synapses. ¯ ory trace.54 YOGA AND PSYCHOLOGY neurons in the cerebral cortex and the hippocampus are modifiable to a high degree and exhibit a prolonged potentiation that could be the physiological expression of the memory process. . or physical structure component. the structuring of a memory trace was described as an accumulation of a latent deposit of karma. Motivation in Freud’s view is selection. Therefore. The drawings are designed to convey the changes in spine synapses that are postulated to occur with growth in B and C and with regression in D. fits well with the modern idea of growth at the synaptic spines. the possibility exists for choice among various neural pathways. disuse is seen to result in a regression and depletion of spine synapses (Figure 1).17 In ancient Yoga terminology. rajas. called attention to the intimate linkage of motive and memory. But. the Freud-Eccles-Pribram approach discussed here is still a viable possibility. an explanation which in Patañjali’s time involved a long and detailed discus¯ ¯ sion as to how the gunas. That this psychobiological approach to memory is still very current and can be seen in a recent article by Francis Crick and Christof Koch. The Yogic notion of habit patterns. Yet. and tamas). Freud. as the Yoga theory of karma points out.16 . or vasanas. assumes that memory and motivation are two aspects of the same psy¯ ¯ chological process. Freud Figure 1. ¯ The Yoga notion that the repetition of a particular samskara results in a habit pattern.18 Freud’s analysis of the neurophysiological process required is as follows. although the thinking as to what may be happening is somewhat more sophisticated regarding short.
they may be repressed so as to defend the person from dangerous desires (e. smell. Perhaps the experimental evidence.g. Freud called a primary process. Only recently has neurophysiology attained the laboratory techniques to study simultaneously what goes on in different portions of a neuron. which produces a memory image of an object that is needed to reduce a tension. are stored in the unconscious. As Pribram makes clear.”20 But in posing this important problem. at each synaptic spine. and superstition are all accountable in terms of memories and motivations within the unconscious.23 While Yoga psychology does not explicitly deal with Freud’s insight regarding the defense mechanism of repression. when obtained. and have motivational power. when a baby becomes hungry.19 This would be the neurophysiological correlate for the motivational. or karmic.” or the buildup.24 Yoga. for both Freud and Yoga. erroneously carried out actions... would seem to be largely in agreement. to what degree is this choice or selection process free or determined? In addition to his “Scientific Project. triggering memories of the sight. following the Leibnizian notion of petites perceptions growing into full-flowered conscious actualizations. the selection procedure prevents purely random transmission and operates on the basis of the cathexis.22 When such processes are perceived as threatening (e. in certain cases of sexual desire). predisposition in psychic functioning. As noted above. It would seem that only now has the science of neurophysiology advanced to the point where this theory can be empirically tested. as the impulse reaches the neuron. the forgetting of names. J U N G . of neural energy at a particular synaptic spine. namely. on the same neuron there could exist several synaptic spines each connected to different neural networks. This process. Thus a whole series of associated memories may be repressed from conscious experience but continue to exist in the unconscious. Freud was far ahead of his time. In Freud’s view. Freud in his “Project” did not succeed in solving “the question of how neural impulses are directed through a net. In theory. sexual desire that could lead to incest) or from traumatic experiences. through repetition. taught that most of the motivation we experience in everyday life comes from the unconscious. There. as. Freud.21 These memory traces become associated with motivation when the personality becomes engaged in the process of tension reduction. Freud argues that when our sense organs are stimulated. with its conception of the unconscious as a huge storehouse of karmic seeds (bi ¯jas) constantly seeking to sprout forth into conscious actualization. which leads to transmitted excitation only under the conditions appropriate to that neural network. A N D YO G A O N M E M O RY 55 accomplished this in terms of “cathexis. chance. for example. mental pictures are created of the perceived objects and preserved as memory traces in the unconscious. both agree that memories are created at the conscious level. Thus.g. and under what conditions such selective direction leads to an adapted repetition of the neuronal pattern. Choice occurs when. the bulk of the psychic memory/motivation processes is within the unconscious. says Pribram. one of the several possible neural networks is selected. both Yoga and Freud agree that memory and motivation are parts of a single psychic process which also embodies choice or selection. In Freud’s view. But whereas Yoga assumes that at the conscious level there is a real possi- .F R E U D .” which he seems to have given up around 1895. or potential energy buildup. taste. and feel of food. will help to clarify the paradox which still remains. Freud dealt with memory and motivation in the development of his theory of psychoanalysis.
or “burnt up.30 Jung seeks out a middle course between the determinism of Freud and the Yoga Sutra ideal of absolute freedom once all ¯ karma is annihilated. JUNG AND KARMA The psychology of Carl Jung evidences both the thinking of his Western teacher. But. Jung turned to India and the East to obtain support for his differing views.29 Although Jung remains resolutely Western and. the most that the conscious processes can hope to achieve is the ability to deal with the unconscious in a rational and insightful way. While the Yoga Sutras agree with ¯ Freud that the pain and frustrations one experiences are caused by the kles as. Of course. Jung gives considerable weight to the creative activity of the individual’s ego-consciousness.56 YOGA AND PSYCHOLOGY bility for the operation of free choice in either negating the karmic impulse or allowing it to actualize fully. that he acted of his own free will and without any motives. and there is absolutely no reason to believe then that there is not a million times more unconscious material beyond that little bit of new acquisition. For Patañjali the goal of Yoga is the complete overcoming of the karmic traces and thus. the annihilation of the unconscious.” to use the Yoga metaphor. Jung. a careful psychoanalysis reveals that such so-called “free actions” for which no conscious motive can be identified are under the control of the unconscious. and determinism in the psychic realm is thus carried out uninterruptedly.27 As we shall see. simply cannot conceive of the unconscious ever becoming completely known. Sigmund Freud. Freud seems convinced that there is no such thing as free will. Jung is influenced by the Yoga notion of karma in important ways. and the influence of Patañjali’s Yoga Sutras.”25 It is with this final stand in favour of the absolute determinism of the unconscious that Freud sharply diverges from Yoga. .”31 But in opposition to Freudian determinism and in line with Yoga. . says Freud. along with Freud. Jung’s psychological process by which the innate contents of the unconscious are creatively individuated into conscious awareness within each psyche is therefore an attempt at a middle way between the extremes of freedom and determinism. “What is thus left free from the one side receives its motive from the other side. in the end. Jung makes his position clear: “You can expand your consciousness so that you even cover a field that had been unconscious to you before . but the essential content provided the individuation process by the collective unconscious and the external environment is a priori a given and therefore a necessity against which the freedom of the creative process is constrained. like Freud. Freud allows that at the level of conscious awareness one feels sure that he could just as easily have acted differently. the approach of Carl Jung attempts to chart a middle course between these two extremes. Evans-Wentz.26 Yoga clearly goes beyond the Freudian counsel that one must learn to live intelligently with such tension and discomfort. In Jung’s thought. or dri´ ves of the unconscious. . denies that the unconscious could ever be totally overcome or destroyed. such individuation is genuinely creative and is to that extent an expression of freedom. In a letter to W. In Freud’s view. from the unconscious. This is seen in the multitude of different and unique ways that the common content of the collective unconscious is individuated and made present in the awareness of each of us. Y.28 A few years after his break ¯ with Freud.
A N D YO G A O N M E M O RY 57 Just as in Yoga theory the contents of the unconscious are described as memory . J U N G .36 Empirical evidence for their existence is demonstrated when they can be recalled during hypnosis or certain drug states and yet remain unknowable during ordinary consciousness. we go to a history book and “memorize” it.” a “disposition” which starts functioning at a given moment in the development of the human mind and arranges the material of consciousness into definite patterns. He distinguished sharply between the irrepresentable.33 Although these collective memories determine our psychic life to a high degree. as. comparable to the biological “pattern of behaviour. are inherent in the collective unconscious of each human being. ethnic group. Jung did produce a detailed theory of the unconscious. the unconscious is nothing more than the stored up sam skaras left behind as memory traces of past thoughts or actions. Although Jung did not ground his thinking on neurophysiology of the sort proposed by Freud. Moreover the archetype per se appears to be an a priori conditioning factor in the human psyche. Jung suggested. is called by Jung “an artificial acquisition consisting mostly of printed paper. The way we ordinarily think of memory.35 The second kind of content found in the unconscious consists of past experiences of the individual’s own lifetime that have been either forgotten or repressed. Real memory involves raising to consciousness the ancestral traces or archetypes which. Jung divided the contents of the unconscious into two kinds.”32 Here Jung is referring to our usual functioning at the level of consciousness only. and symbols that we encounter in dreams. tribe. as opposed to the artificial memory of something memorized from a book. Like the forgotten or repressed . and visions are indirect empirical evidence. so also Jung conceives of the unconscious as containing the psychobiological memory of our ancestral past. the contents of the collective unconscious. fantasies. In his later writings Jung expanded and developed the concept of the archetype considerably. in Jung’s view. when we memorize something for an examination. ¯ from Jung is that the vast majority of the samskaras making up the unconscious come not from the collective history of mankind but rather from the individual history of . Jung described them as being “neutral” and becoming filled with content only when they come into contact with consciousness. and family. These Jung calls the memories of the personal unconscious.34 Jung admitted that direct evidence for these inherited memory complexes was not available. At the conscious level. ¯ traces (samskaras). It is the making present of these two types of psychic contents from the unconscious that Jung views as real memory. ¯ contents of Jung’s personal unconscious. for example. As Gerhard Adler notes. transcendental archetype per se and its visible manifestation in consciousness as the archetypal image or symbol. but he argued that psychic manifestations such as the complexes. some of the sam skaras will be the memory traces of thoughts or actions undertaken during this lifetime. this is not real memory but merely an artificial acquisition. primitive human ancestors. ¯ In Yoga. nation. For Jung. images. The first. But where Yoga differs . We examine Jung’s account of the psychological processes involved in memory in more detail in chapter 6. if we are asked to learn something of our past. are composed of the psychic heritage or history passed on to us by our animal ancestors.F R E U D . .
that we come to know all forgotten actions and thoughts from this life as well as all actions and thoughts composing our past lives. This yogic accomplishment not only does away with memory. As these memories of the past are brought up from the unconscious. Freedom. their contents momentarily pass through our conscious awareness. ¯ that particular person’s past lives. ¯ but the sum total of the samskaras. This Jungian “individual freedom” is the polar opposite of the Yoga teaching that true freedom is known only when one gives up all ego-activity. of past actions or thoughts are purged from the “storehouse” of the unconscious. but there are undoubtedly inherited archetypes. he flatly rejects the idea of reincarnation of the individual soul.41 Jung saw that the Yoga viewpoint led to a dissolution of ego and individuality. implied the creative activity of each person’s ego in individuating the archetypes. says Yoga. . Yoga is like a mental vacuum cleaner that re.58 YOGA AND PSYCHOLOGY . But here Jung’s theory diverges from Patañjali’s Yoga in three ways. since it was nothing . one . that through intense meditation all sam skaras are brought up to the level of awareness. For Jung. meditation is the removal of mental defilements. or memory traces. is said to be totally present—a mind uncluttered by the . but memory traces from the actions and thoughts in the innumerable past lives of the individual. ¯ Patañjali defines yoga as the removal or destruction of all karmic samskaras from previous lives until a completely clear and discriminating mind is achieved.39 . “there is no inheritance of individual prenatal or pre-uterine memories. but also with the unconscious. Jung could agree that Yoga for the Easterner. therefore. in accordance with which the mind organizes its contents. and thus to a completely different conception of freedom. sam skaras or memory traces function as obstacles to true knowledge of reality. and exhaustive knowledge of one’s past lives is achieved. of the collective unconscious. It is in this way. such as Gautama Buddha. The first difference is that. would help an individual to recover knowledge of thoughts or actions of this life which had been forgotten or repressed.”37 These archetypes are “the universal dispositions of the mind. meditation is a psychological process whereby the sam skaras. ¯ jali’s Yoga. or memory traces of the past. or psychic heredity. or “individuation” for the Westerner. since everything is now present knowledge. For Yoga. ¯ known. for Jung. A second difference is . such as the Buddha. For Yoga. and they are to be understood as analogous to Plato’s forms (eidola).40 For Patañ. ¯ that whereas for Yoga the samskaras are obstructions which must be removed for the achievement of knowledge. A perfected yogin.”38 The other major difference between Jung and Yoga has to do with their differing assessments as to the degree to which the memory and unconscious can be . He would also allow that the same techniques could put one in touch with the archetypes. ¯ cannot speak in terms of individual samskaras of previous lives but only of collective predispositions (archetypes) passed on by a person’s ancestors. ¯ moves from our minds all the sam skaras collected during this and previous lives. ¯ Whereas Jung is willing to give sympathetic consideration to this notion of samskaras from the past. ¯ yogins. to Jung. Thus the claim of the great . if it is understood as a kind of collective psychic heredity. As the Zen master Eido Roshi put it. for Jung it is through the shaping of the materials of con- . the vast majority of the samskaras stored in the unconscious are not the forgotten materials from this life. ¯ samskaras of an unconscious psyche. and their removal by yogic meditation results in omniscience.
Jung agrees with the Yoga contention that ego. Freud’s neurophysiological theory provides for a kind of “grooving” of transmission pathways in the nervous system. ¯ the very problem which the Yoga notion of karmic memory traces. treats the karmic processes as predispositions of greater or lesser strength but which always require an act of free choosing at the level of conscious awareness for either actualization or negation. seems parallel to the yogic notion of vasanas. In his little-known Project for a Scientific Psychology. The research of Sir John Eccles suggests that this “grooving” takes place by growth in the spines on neuron dendrites which facilitates synaptic transmission of the impulse along a particular neural network. This work of Freud and Eccles indicates that there are modifiable synapses that could be . for there will always be more of the unconscious to be explored. by contrast.F R E U D . Jung concludes that such a state is both a philosophical and a psychological impossibility. and the unconscious. can be removed. . still freedom of choice is said to be retained. following the Leibnitzian tradition with its assumption that the mind is genetically active rather than passive. however. The Yoga claim of omniscience must also be rejected. More philosophically stated. such a claim is one-sidedly subjective. or karmic drives. Freud sees all memory from sensory experience or repressions existing as memory images within the unconscious. in terms of his psychoanalytic theory. true knowledge requires that ego-sense be removed. there is disagreement as to the deterministic nature of such processes. ¯ sense that memories produce is composed of nothing but obstructing samskaras. For Yoga. A N D YO G A O N M E M O RY 59 sciousness by the archetypal “memories” that knowledge of reality results. is to be dismissed as unwarranted metaphysical speculation.43 But Jung flatly rejects the Yoga notion that since the ego. an explanation which in Patañjali’s day was attempted in terms of guna theory. all memory. it is the paradox that although karma predisposes one to act or think in a particular way. and from the Yoga claim that all sam skaras. ¯ ¯ within the unconscious. Freud attempted a neurophysiological solution to the question: how can an organism remain sensitive to new excitations yet at the same time retain traces of prior stimulation— . It does not take seriously the experiential fact that the subjective categories of the mind do not possess knowledge themselves. In Jung’s view. Thus with regard to the Yoga claims of realizing egolessness. This chapter has examined points of contact between the understanding of karma as set forth in Patañjali’s Yoga Sutras and the modern theorizing of Freud and ¯ Jung with regard to memory. or “I-ness. ¯ traces (samskaras) for its full and complete revelation.42 A third difference arises directly from the different value given memory by the . The one-sided Yoga theory. J U N G . motivation. seeks to answer. or samskaras. the psychology of Carl Jung seems more . therefore. In Freud’s view. Freud’s thinking. the choices offered between several neural networks on a single neuron are largely determined by motives which are operative at the unconscious level. knowledge of reality is a given inherently present in the consciousness of each individual and requiring only the removal of obstructing and distorting memory . ¯ ¯ ¯ the modern neurophysiological explanation for karmic samskaras and vasanas. With regard to this balance between unconscious impulses and free choice. but merely shape external stimuli so that perceptual knowledge results. Although both Freud and Yoga theory agree that the bulk of the psychic memory processes are usually within the unconscious. Yoga. ¯ two approaches. Or.” results from the continuity of memory.
true knowledge requires that ego-sense be transcended. one cannot speak in . Jung’s psychology is seen to be more in line with Yoga. However.44 Freud’s emphasis upon the unconscious and his delineation of its likely neurophysiological basis provide a modern scientific basis for a good portion of Patañjali’s karma theory. ¯ terms of individual samskaras of previous lives. Although Jung’s notion of the archetypes is similar to . In attempting a middle path between freedom and determinism. he rejects the Yoga notion that. . In conclusion. According to Jung. ¯ samskaras. (2) Whereas for Yoga the sam skaras are obstructions which must be removed for the realization of knowledge. ¯ archetypes passed on by a person’s ancestors. since the ego-sense that memories produce is composed of nothing but obstructing . which sees karma as individual and open to complete removal in the quest for omniscience.60 YOGA AND PSYCHOLOGY in tune with Patañjali’s Yoga. which theory on the other hand challenges the throughgoing unconscious determinism of the Freudian point of view. but only of collective predispositions or . but allows for free choice in his requirement that the archetype be creatively developed by each individual within his own ego-consciousness. (3) While Jung agrees with the Yoga contention that ego. Patañjali’s Yoga has always viewed memory and motivation as aspects of the same psychological process. three ways in which Jung differs from Yoga are identified: (1) In Jung’s view. such individuation of the archetype is genuinely creative and is to that extent an expression of freedom. or I-ness. a position which has been adopted by contemporary Western cognitive psychologists. Jung’s stress on the collective nature of the unconscious and its inability to be completely known is challenged by Patañjali’s theory. it may be said that the ancient Yoga conception of karma can be shown to have points of significant contact with modern psychology. Jung provides for motivation from the unconscious in the form of the archetypes. ¯ and may well have been influenced by Patañjali’s theory of samskaras. results from the continuity of memory. for Jung it is through the shaping of the materials of consciousness by the archetypal “memories” that knowledge of reality results.
The Indian. Any reductionistic collapsing of philosophy into psychology or vice versa is the cause of what Jung critically calls Eastern intuition over-reaching itself.’”4 In a 1958 letter Jung wrote. Eastern thought suffers “a curious detachment from the 61 . “there is no psychology in our sense of the word. India is ‘pre-psychological.3 In Jung’s eyes. says Jung. therefore. but instead a philosophy consisting entirely of what we would call psychology. In India. In line with other modern Western thinkers.2 This is especially evident if the cognitive aspects of his psychology. Such an analysis shows ¯ that at least one of the reasons Jung could not completely identify with Patañjali’s Yoga was the lack of distinction between philosophy and psychology that seems to typify much Eastern thought. for example. this was nothing more than the psychological projection of an idea which had no foundation in human experience. Carl Jung was for a time strongly influenced by Patañjali’s Yoga Psychology. this over-reaching of yoga is especially evident in the widespread Eastern notion that the individual ego can be completely transcended and some form of universal consciousness achieved. Jung claimed to follow the scientific method of keeping a clear distinction between the description of cognitive processes.1 The period of influence was mainly in the 1920s. “There is no psychology worthy of this name in East Asia. perception. said Jung. Jung viewed the East as making such errors because it had not yet reached the high level of self-awareness achieved in the modern Western development of scientific thought. and truth claims attesting to the objective reality of such cognitions. Eastern psychology was nothing more than a kind of scholastic description of psychic processes with no necessary connection to empirical facts. on the other. For Jung. on the one hand. is still pre-Kantian. but by the end of the 1930s Jung’s main attention turned back to Western thought. Because of this lack of empirical method. and thinking are analyzed in relation to the corresponding concepts found in Patañjali’s Yoga Sutras. the processes of memory.6 Where Jung Draws the Line in His Acceptance of Patañjali’s Yoga In the formation of his psychological theory.”5 In Jung’s view.
9 The essential basis of the modern scientific approach is that it carefully avoids any reductionism between psychology and philosophy or any confusion between the two. Each time I had to extract the detail for him from an irreducible totality. In a 1955 letter to a theological student. said Jung. the older psychologies of the East and the medieval West are founded on metaphysical concepts which often have little relation to empirical facts. It is clear that Jung views his own work as scientific while that of the older psychologies is of a quite different order—“opinion rather than fact. still views reality metaphysically in terms of the whole. Jung said.”6 As evidence for this contention.”7 The East. but rather historical and literary parallels to his scientific discoveries. He appealed to the Eastern stress on the wholeness or collective nature of reality as providing not additional empirical evidence. . why I dreamed a certain dream last night. and describes the whole in cognitive projections which often have little to do with the nominalistic concepts of the empiricist. Psychology has also devised its own particular methods for measuring both ordinary and unusual sorts of behavior. It is evident in the above discussion that the underlying distinction which determines where Jung draws the line in his acceptance of Yoga comes from his holding firmly to modern Western scientific method.”12 To illustrate his argu- . or how I came to address a friend by the wrong Christian name. Ryle effectively argues against “the false notion that psychology is the sole empirical study of people’s mental powers. had great difficulty in perceiving the whole in terms of its empirical parts. while gifted in seeing things in their totality. Jung reported that Easterners. which we cannot explain from our own knowledge. together with its implied false corollary that ‘the mind’ is what is properly describable only in the technical terms proprietary to psychological research. propensities. . modern psychology often lost sight of the larger whole.”11 In addition there are the cases of perceptual illusion such as why a straight line cutting through certain crosshatchings looks bent. Jung makes clear that whereas modern psychology (including Freud’s Psychoanalysis and Jung’s own Analytical Psychology) has an empirical foundation. Emphasis upon the holistic or collective nature of the unconscious was seen by Jung as one of his major contributions in helping to restore the balance between the part and the whole in modern Western thought. Because of its focus on the minutiae of empirical evidence. The hallmark of this method is that it is empirical in nature. Jung’s main empirical evidence in this regard was the dreams and drawings produced by himself and his patients. “. . it was as though I had asked him to bring me a blade of grass. and performances.62 YOGA AND PSYCHOLOGY world of concrete particulars we call reality. why I chatter more rapidly after the air-raid siren is heard. Ryle offers the following examples: “I do not know why I was so tongue-tied in the presence of a certain acquaintance. For example. . Jung was not unaware of its hazards.10 Ryle argues that psychology is that science which provides explanations for the kinds of behavior for which we can ordinarily give no explanation. of his conversation with the Chinese scholar Hu Shih. One of the more general statements of the domain and method of modern psychology is offered by the philosopher Gilbert Ryle. and each time he had dragged along a whole meadow for me. . why I suddenly saw in my mind’s eye an uninteresting street corner of a town that I hardly know.”8 As a champion of modern scientific psychology.
Jung does allow that memories from experiences during one’s own lifetime (that have been forgotten or repressed) make up the contents of what he calls the personal unconscious. Real memory involves knowing ourselves from within rather than from books. all exist in subliminal form in the unconscious. the goal of Yoga is the . philosophy. in Jung’s view. ¯ and the unconscious are accounted for in terms of samskaras. is at least part of the reason for Eastern thought losing contact with reality and indulging in “cognitive projection” rather than empirical observation. along with the seismological enterprise. Ryle offers the analogy that England cannot be described solely in seismological terms. As we previously noted. The difference between the East and the West is that although the East includes all of life in its domain of knowledge.” which for him is the raising to conscious awareness of the ancestral traces contained in the archetypes of the collective unconscious inherent in each person. intuition. ¯ memories or samskaras. as shown in chapter 5. Jung called them the archetypes. botanical. to the extent that memories from past lives exist in the unconscious. For Patañjali’s Yoga.13 As we saw in the previous chapter. and knowing with the descriptions found in the Yoga Sutras of Patañjali. But Jung’s additional plea is that the psychological enterprise must be carried on with the larger perspective of the other empirical disciplines in view.W H E R E J U N G D R AW S T H E L I N E 63 ment. religion. and feeling. Indeed for Jung. A complete knowledge of England requires geographical. imagination. historical. both memories . anthropology. With this contention Jung would agree. Only after such psychic contents are raised or individuated beyond a certain threshold level of psychic energy is consciousness of the memory achieved. Let us test out Jung’s contention in this regard by comparing his analysis of memory. they are collective rather than individual in nature. memory and other cognitive functions. Western empirical psychology must be aware of the scientific achievements of physiology. Jung disagreed with the Yoga idea that memories of past lives could be individual and that the contents of the unconscious were these individual . ¯ M E M O RY A N D T H E U N C O N S C I O U S The unique aspect of Jung’s view of memory is that it functions at the level of the unconscious as well as at the level of the conscious psyche. thinking. Also. This has had the result of confusion and reductionism between disciplines and. physics. perception. real memory necessarily first resides in the collective unconscious in a subliminal form. While for Yoga. history. it achieves this holistic view by an uncritical lumping together of all knowledge. as we outlined in chapter 5. Jung disagreed with Yoga over the degree to which memory and the unconscious can be known. The main difference between the occurrence of these functions in the unconscious as opposed to the conscious is that in the former they possess less psychic energy or intensity and thus remain below the threshold of awareness. For Jung’s psychology. and other studies. such as perception. and so on. Jung distinguishes our memorizing of information from notes for an examination—which he calls an “artificial acquisition”— from “real memory. For Jung. or memory traces of an individual’s actions or thoughts in this or previous lives stored up in the unconscious.
In his 1939 Summer Semester Lectures at the Eidgenössische Technische Hochschule. ¯ raising of all memory traces.15 Jung’s reasoning here was that a rigorously disciplined yogic practice such as Patañjali’s would only aggravate the already chronic Western ailment. Jung felt that the better way for Western person to overcome his or her encapsulation within the conscious level and get to know the contents of the unconscious was through the process of fantasizing or active imagination—a technique which Jung had developed in his own psychological practice. Jung was well acquainted with these Yoga teachings of Patañjali.16 Aside from this difference as to the best technique to use in getting to know and control the unconscious. true knowledge requires that ego-sense be removed. or active imagination. “is my duty as a scientist. . the Buddha’s claim to knowledge of all past lives) is. and thus cause the unconscious to cease to exist. through the meditation techniques of Yoga. be made known. Jung was convinced that such a goal was not realizable. Jung could agree that Yoga. . The parallel Yoga claim of omniscience resulting from the raising of all the memory contents to the conscious level (e. and this he felt to be nothing more than fanciful speculation. While he allowed that Patañjali’s yogic meditation may be an appropriate technique for the Easterner. Jung thought that no matter how much material is raised to the level of conscious awareness. Jung concludes that such a state is both a philosophical and a psychological impossibility.17 But Jung flatly rejects the Yoga notion that since the ego-sense . .”18 Thus with regard to the Yoga claims of realizing egolessness. Zürich. or ‘I-ness’. . Jung argued that his process of active imagination was more suitable for the Westerner. Jung wrote his own commentary on the claims of the Yoga Sutras. for there will always be more of the unconscious to be explored. In a 1939 letter to W. He would also allow that the same technique could put one in touch with the archetypes or psychic heredity of the collective unconscious. evidence of Yoga’s lack of an empirical grounding. . Thus it is absolutely impossible to know what I would experience when that “I” which could experience didn’t exist any more. from the unconscious to conscious awareness. Jung speaks strongly against the notion of ‘egoless knowing’ prevalent in both Hindu and Buddhist yoga: “No matter how far an ekstasis [religious ecstasy] goes or how far consciousness can be extended.”19 .14 Jung agreed that ¯ there were psychological techniques such as Yoga that would enable us to get to know the unconscious and at least some of its memory contents. “Agnosticism.. overdevelopment of the will and the conscious control of the psyche. there is still the continuity of the apperceiving ego which is essential to all forms of consciousness. Y. for Jung. Jung agrees with the Yoga contention that ego. .g. The Yoga claim that all the memory contents can. Evans-Wentz. namely. would help an individual to recover knowledge of thoughts or actions of this life which had been forgotten or repressed.” says Jung. The Yoga claim of omniscience must also be rejected. results from the continuity of memory. Jung saw that the Yoga viewpoint led to a complete dissolution of ego and individuality. ¯ that memories produce is composed of nothing but obstructing sam skaras. or samskaras. there will always be more left in the unconscious.64 YOGA AND PSYCHOLOGY . is simply impossible in Jung’s view. for the Easterner. for the Westerner.
to say. Even when I say “I know myself. which is completely ignored by the essentially non-dualistic standpoint of the East. For Yoga.22 The ¯ yoga description of pratibha perception suggests a consciousness so purged of all fil¯ . ¯ obstructing sam skaras. The perceptions of the word-label and word-meaning are legacies of . and for most Hindu and Buddhist schools of thought. and . there are . ¯ convention or past usage and as such are distorting samskaras. There are the sense perceptions of ordinary experience at the conscious level. the ego and its samskaras so obstruct the perception that only a distorted view of the whole object is seen. there nevertheless lies hidden the whole unabolished pluralistic universe and its unconquered reality. the distortion occurs when the perception of the object is mixed together in consciousness with the word we use in language to name the object and the meaning or idea which this name evokes.23 The object in all its aspects and qualities stands fully revealed as in a single flash.24 Jung’s critique of this concept of pratibha. as in many yogic practices. In the Yoga example of consciousness taking on the nature of the object.W H E R E J U N G D R AW S T H E L I N E 65 PE RC E P T I O N The idea of an egoless state of consciousness has had a considerable influence on the Yoga view of perception. Patañjali taught that on the removal of the ego-producing and . is simply a special technique for introspection. or at nothing. According to Patañjali’s analysis.20 ¯ Pratibha or intuition is held to give noumenal knowledge of the object upon which the ¯ yogi is meditating. or the higher level of perception. “There must always be somebody or something left over to experience the realization. I know there is no distinction.27 Jung’s own analysis of perception also results in what seems to be a two-level theory. therefore. After looking long enough at the object.26 Jung’s judgment as to what is really happening when the yogis think they are in a pratibha state is found in his 1934 letter to the physicist Wolfgang Pauli. an intuition of what it would be like if one could exist and not exist at the same time. It is as if the cognizing consciousness becomes completely devoid of its own nature and takes on the nature of the object itself. ¯ tering or distorting sam skaras that the object shines through it as through a perfectly pure pane of glass. says Jung. After suggesting ¯ that if you look long enough into a dark hole you perceive what is looking in. has been achieved. Once these two distorting memories are purged from consciousness so that the direct experience of the object alone remains. Jung argues. the yogi becomes aware of his own psyche. or higher perception.” In this as it were atomic ego. Yoga. It is the perception of the object itself which is the true perception. is based upon his philosophic presupposition that it is ¯ impossible to have a knowing experience without the presence of a knower in consciousness. pratibha. The experience of “at-one-ment” is one example of those “quick-knowing” realizations of the East. ¯ two levels of perception.” an infinitesimal ego—the knowing “I”—is still distinct from “myself. For Patañjali.21 On the lower level. the ordinary psychic state which is dominated by egoconsciousness produces only everyday phenomenal knowledge of the object. ‘I know at-one-ment.’”25 It is simply impossible to completely dispense with the knowing ego. a supernormal level of perception (pratibha ) is experienced. Jung argues that something like this is happening to the yogis.
and from these. withdrawn from sight. taste.34 What the yogi imagines himself to be perceiving in the state of pratibha would include ¯ the simultaneous sum total of all available sense perceptions plus all the subliminal . especially when we find ourselves thrust into primitive situations. or memory traces. In viewing a mountain landscape. are a result of the stimuli that stream into us from the outside world.” Whereas sense perception derives a conscious apprehension of reality. we have many subliminal perceptions. In such instances.”30 sometimes called a “hunch. comes from the archetypes. or supersensuous perception. Consciousness not only requires. or things as they are.31 There are those situations encountered in life where everything appears quite normal at the level of conscious sense perceptions. smell. It is the function of the ego to receive such creations of the intuitive process once the level of consciousness is reached. and touch the world. We see. This second-order analysis of the bare sense perceptions Jung calls apperception. and so we are conscious of it. Jung sees consciousness as a world full of restrictions. Any increase in the simultaneous contents immediately produces a dimming of consciousness. but is of its very nature strictly limited to. the few and hence the distinct. the trees. This is perception by way of the unconscious. while the intuitive type will simply register the general atmosphere and color. All else must be in shadow.” for things are not as they should be. hear. He defines intuition as “perception of the possibilities inherent in a situation. To know what something is. for example.33 In contrast to the Yoga view of the highest level of consciousness as pratibha or ¯ unlimited omniscience. our hunches arise. which occurs mostly at the unconscious level.29 For example.66 YOGA AND PSYCHOLOGY then there is what Jung calls the process of intuition. says Jung. on analysis. While the archetypes of the collective unconscious make available to us in outline form the ways our ancestors have reacted in key situations. Whereas in Yoga one goes from ordinary sense experience to the higher level of pratibha. Jung starts with ordinary sense ¯ experience and then goes inward to the lower level of the unconscious. The bare sense perceptions simply tell us that something is. if not confusion to the point of disorientation. intuition derives an unconscious or inner conception of the potentialities of things. the colors of the rocks. the person who functions mainly at the level of sense perceptions will note every detail: the flowers. involves the more complicated analysis and evaluation of the sense perception by the cognitive processes of thinking and feeling. it is the function of intuition to bring this wisdom forward to the level of consciousness and to make it relevant by shaping and interpreting the sense impressions received from the external environment. we hear a noise which. suggests Jung. yet the small inner voice of intuition tells us to “look out. Jung describes intuition as one of the basic functions of the psyche. No consciousness can harbor more than a very small number of simultaneous perceptions. strikes us as peculiar— an evaluation supplied by the feeling function—and is recognized as the noise that air-bubbles make when rising in the pipes of the heating system—an explanation provided by the thinking process. but not what it is. and the waterfall.28 Ordinary sense perceptions.32 Jung says that the wisdom intuition offers us. says Jung. at the unconscious level. of the unconscious.
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contents of the unconscious. Jung calls this Eastern claim “a most audacious fantasy” and argues that the very maximum consciousness can achieve is to single out for perception a small part of the external sensory input and the vast store of subliminal psychic potentials in the unconscious. In Zen meditation, says Jung, what happens is that consciousness is emptied as far as possible of its perceived contents, which then “fall back” into the unconscious. The contents that “break through” into consciousness as the satori, or enlightenment, experience are far from random. They represent the natural healing and integrating tendency inherent in the archetypes of the collective unconscious. The allowing of new contents to come forward and be integrated at the level of the conscious ego is the Zen parallel to the therapeutic function of modern Western psychological techniques, such as Jung’s notion of active imagination. In Jung’s view, it is the unconscious and its contents that are Zen’s “original man.”35 Yet another perspective on Jung’s understanding of perception is found in an explanation he writes to A. M. Hubbard regarding Hubbard’s experiments with the psychedeletic drug mescaline. Jung describes the action of mescaline as paralyzing the normal selective and integrative functions of apperception. The bare sense perceptions are added to by the myriad of emotions, associations, and meanings that the sense perceptions evoke from the vast store of subliminal possibilities contained in the unconscious psyche. Jung writes, “These additions, if unchecked, would dissolve into or cover up the objective image by an infinite variety, a real ‘fantasia’ or symphony of shades and nuances both of qualities as well as of meanings.”36 Unlike the normal process of cognition where the ego and its apperceptive processes produce a “correct” representation of the object by excluding inappropriate subliminal perceptional variants, the anaesthetic action of mescaline upon the ego-consciousness opens the door to the riotous world of the unconscious. In Jung’s view, it is better that this doorway to the unconscious be opened by the technique of active imagination, which leaves the integrative processes of the ego-consciousness functional, and thereby enables therapeutic gains to be made.37 The concept of intuitive perception is used by Jung to account for cases of extrasensory perception (ESP). ESP is simply seen as perception by way of the unconscious, and therefore should be thought of as a special case of intuition. In a 1945 letter, Jung says that he is entirely convinced of the existence of ESP and has left a place for ESP in his definition of intuition. What is needed now, he contends, is that physiology should follow his lead and leave room for paraphysiology.38
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All Eastern schools of philosophy that adopt a two-level theory of perception also maintain that there are two levels of knowledge. Lower knowledge results when the sense organs come into contact with some object. This knowledge is limited by the factors of time, because the object is known in the present but not in the past or future; space because the object is known in the present location but not in other locations; by the efficiency of the sense organ; and by the distortions imposed by . ¯ samskaras of past usage of word-label and meaning which attach themselves to the direct perception of the object. Because of these limitations, it is referred to as lower
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knowledge and is thought to be quite useful in everyday practical affairs but of little use if one is searching for true or absolute knowledge of the object.39 Such higher knowledge can be realized only through the special yogic pratibha, or supersensuous ¯ intuition of the object. The Sanskrit word pratibha, which literally means a flash of ¯ light, is suggestive of the kind of cognition involved. Patañjali describes it as immediate and intensely clear. It is free from time and space limitations and from the . ¯ distorting samskaras of word-labels, previously ascribed discursive meanings and egoconsciousness. It relies on neither the sense organs nor the rational intellect. The Sanskrit word most commonly employed in Eastern thought to refer to this higher knowledge is prajña.40 ¯ Although prajña is mentioned several times by Patañjali, it is perhaps best de¯ fined in Yoga Sutras I: 47 and 48. Prajña is knowledge of the truth, the essence. In it ¯ ¯ there is not even a trace of false knowledge.41 Through the constant training of yoga, the mind is gradually freed from the distorting effects of conceptual thinking and . ¯ from the samskaras, or memory traces, of the past. Finally the mind (citta) becomes so pure (sattva) that it merges with any object which may be presented to it. “No matter what this object may be, it is then fully illumined and its real nature perfectly brought out.”42 While Eastern scholars claim that the above description of prajña is based directly ¯ on the actual experiences of yogis and is therefore empirical evidence, Jung argues that it is nothing more than a fanciful projection. If the cognitive structures of ego-consciousness, conceptual thinking, and sense perception are not functioning in prajña, as ¯ the yogis claim, then the trance they achieve can be nothing more than unconsciousness. If the yogi is unconscious, he can hardly be realizing absolute knowledge of the object. One cannot be fully aware and unconscious at the same time. For Jung this internal contradiction within Eastern thought is totally unacceptable.43 The fact that this conflict does not seem to trouble Eastern scholars leads him to conclude that the Eastern intellect is underdeveloped when compared with the Western intellect.44 Jung’s theory of knowledge also seems to have two levels. The lower level results from the ordinary reception of sense perceptions and the apperception of these in a routine mechanical fashion, almost totally without reference to the unconscious realm. The analysis of artificial memory, cited above, is a good example of what Jung means here. Although this may provide useful technical knowledge, it leaves a person cut off from his or her intuitive processes and from the deeper wisdom of the ages. Higher knowledge results when the intuitive processes engage the external sense perceptions with the a priori forms of the archetypes, so that a newly created and truly meaningful symbol is given birth in consciousness.45 This is Jung’s process of individuation, by which the ego through the cognitive processes of sensing, intuiting, thinking, and feeling employs the formal structures of the archetypes to appropriate selected sense apperceptions from the multitude of environmental stimuli. In this way both the inner archetypes and the external environment becomes known. As this integration of archetypes with external sense perceptions proceeds, a self is gradually individuated, or separated out, as the person’s own particular uniqueness. For Jung the highest knowledge is knowledge of the self. This is achieved when the self becomes sufficiently integrated for the ego to recognize it as a unified whole.46 It is through the
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integrating structure of the self, which extends outward from the ego in ever-expanding concentric circles, embracing both the conscious and the unconscious psyche, that the wisdom of the world is known. As Jung puts it, “Individuation does not shut one out from the world, but gathers the world to oneself.”47 For Jung it is the circular mand ala that best symbolizes the archetype of the self and helps to integrate the per.. sonality until the state of self-knowledge is finally realized. But regardless of how much we may integrate and make ourselves conscious through this process, “there will always exist an indeterminate and indeterminable amount of unconscious material which belongs to the totality of the self.”48 Given the necessity of the ego for conscious awareness, the limits of higher knowledge, for Jung, are much more restricted than the wide-open prajña of the yogis. According to Jungian psychology, total ¯ knowledge of the self can never be achieved.
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7 Mysticism in Jung and Patañjali’s Yoga MYSTICISM DEFINED The study of mysticism has occupied an important place in almost all of the great religious traditions. suggests that it is helpful to think of mystical experience as in some respects parallel to ordinary sense experience. Bookstores typically link mysticism with the occult and frequently display books on mysticism in the “occultism” section. in fact. Such psychic phenomena as visions. confused. as a perception of a spiritual presence which is 71 . and altered states of consciousness are frequently dubbed “mystical. In recent years. Rather than being “misty” or “confused. Walter Stace points out that the very word mysticism is an unfortunate one. “It suggests mist. and therefore foggy. “to help people enjoy the spiritual experiences formerly available only to religious mystics. levitation. trances. that is.”1 With such imprecision in the use of the term mysticism abounding.” mystical experiences are typically described as clear illuminations having all the qualities of direct sensory perception. It also suggests mystery and miraclemongering. and therefore hocus-pocus. Stace.”2 But when an examination is made of the experiences reported by the great mystics. In his book entitled Mysticism and Philosophy. however. the term mysticism has been used so loosely in everyday language that its traditional meaning is in danger of becoming lost. it is important that any scholarly discussion begin with a precise definition of the subject.” Walter Principe reported the following newspaper item: Last May the Toronto Star’s headline-writer announced: “Scientist offers electronic way to mysticism”—this to entice readers to an article about a “meditation machine” or revolving bed that is “intended. something which is much different emerges. or vague thinking.” says the photo-caption.
7 a numen. such as imaginative visions. in an analogy from aesthetics. and cognition. . and so on.”5 On this point virtually all scholars agree. of course. rejects the perception analogy as too narrow. and yet at the same time his reading and effort of understanding may be for him the occasion of a personal awareness of God. perception. William James makes the very general suggestion that mystical experience of the transcendent occurs through the psychological processes of the subconscious self. As Copleston puts it.12 In the midst of this confusion and disagreement about the psychological processes involved. or is it a merely subjective psychological phenomenon? This question is. Frederick Copleston pointed out a paradox which is characteristic of mystical experience. of course. prefers an analogy to aesthetic experience as the best way of evoking a sense of the mystical. as not mystical in and of themselves. “In the case of mysticism a man may be conscious of the fact that the experience described transcends the range of his own experience. He also seems to suggest the existence of a separate psychological faculty specially suited for the reception of numinous stimuli emanating from the wholly other (the numen). there seems to be little consensus about the psychological processes involved. and yet does not arise out of them but is merely occasioned by them. is transcendent of both the sensory experience of the empirical world and any allencompassing identification with a finite ego of the sort which typifies pathological states. Is the psychological process of the mystical experience in some way analogous to sense perception? Or is it. raptures. Defining it as a perception. . “we all know that some people see things or hear voices without even a prima facie connection with the divine. but it is a question which necessarily raises psychological issues. instead. Mysticism is characterized by the experience of an unseen reality.”11 Mystical experience. Other than a general agreement that mystical experience is transcendent in nature and must not be confused with extraordinary psychic accomplishments and certain pathological states. .72 YOGA AND PSYCHOLOGY greater than humankind. There is Stace’s suggestion that something like sense perception is the process involved.”10 It is this very transcendent character of mystical experience that causes scholars to reject psychic phenomena.3 The question raised is this: Does mystical experience. as Rudolf Otto (following Immanuel Kant) suggests. he invokes a special mental faculty which would function amid the data of feeling. like sense experience.6 a spiritual presence. however. and yet somehow be independent of all of these. by contrast. ecstasies.8 or an absolute9 that is transcendent in that “it is identifiable neither with the empirical world as its appears to us in everyday experience and in natural science nor with the finite self considered as such . allows one to avoid Russell’s error of describing mysticism as only an emotion.4 Otto. And of course there are also pathological psychological states resembling ecstasy which can be accounted for by purely naturalistic explanations. something that begins amid all the sensory data of the natural world and indeed cannot exist without such data. Otto. it is helpful to examine comparatively the thought of the Western psychologist Carl Jung and the Yoga psychologist Patañjali in relation to mystical experience. voices. says Stace. and therefore as simply subjective. one which is formulated by a philosopher for philosophical reasons. point to any objective reality.
In Jung’s view. “He cannot grasp. By this Jung did not mean that he was adopting the metaphysics or theology of Eastern religion. What saves us from this fate. he calls them mana. In his commentary on The Secret of the Golden Flower. dominate them. Jung’s most significant religious experience did not focus on the reconciling of God and humans but rather with the reconciliation of the opposites within the God-image itself. nor can he free himself or escape from them.”16 Although these forces are nothing other than aspects of the unconscious. daimon. Jung felt. The God-image. or archetype. comprehend. Jung was following an approach he first encountered in Eastern Yoga but later found to be also present in Western medieval alchemy. to call them merely “the unconscious. “I do not believe. . Jung summarized the significance of his encounter with Eastern religion as bringing God within the range of his own experience of reality. Jung replied. for this he explicitly rejects. Recognizing that they do not spring from his conscious personality.”15 Jung’s theoretical explanation for this inner psychological experience of God rested upon his notion of the God archetype. Mystical experiences. His claim to be an agnostic (see chapter 5) is a statement about his relationship to theological statements or beliefs. The forces involved arise from the unconscious and transcend the finite ego so that. or God. Jung’s approach here is psychological and not theological. is the fact that deep within each of us is the God-image which is the psychological foundation of our psyche. In this context. I know!”14 By rooting his approach in the direct experience of knowing God rather than having a religion based on the affirmation of conceptual statements of belief. When asked in a BBC interview whether he believed in God. However. “I must concern myself with him. and therefore feels them as overpowering. All around himself Jung felt the forces of good and evil moving. mysticism plays a large role in this whole process of uniting and balancing the opposing forces within experience. for then he can become important even unpleasantly so.M Y S T I C I S M I N J U N G A N D P ATA Ñ J A L I ’ S Y O G A 73 M Y S T I C I S M I N T H E A N A LY T I C A L PSYCHOLOGY OF CARL JUNG Writing his “Late Thoughts. the term mysticism is being used. and chaos would ensue. . . said Jung. but in the end the only thing that really mattered was the degree to which the individuated self could transcend these opposing forces. It seems to have been Jung’s view that as an isolated ego. and can affect me in practical ways . says Jung. This inherent God-image within each of us can have a unifying effect upon the whole personality. a person would never succeed in reuniting the opposing forces. Especially noticeable is the way in which the opposing tensions are brought together by the guiding influence of the God archetype over the individual ego. may have a powerful effect upon a person. There is no doubt that Jung’s experience was highly mystical. but as a powerful impulse within my personality.”13 Carl Jung puts down his own personal religious experience as clearly as may be found anywhere in his writings. by seeing God not as an absolute beyond all human experience. would not be satisfactory for most people.” while empirically correct. is inherent in the collective unconscious as the primal stratum or foundational matrix. as just defined by Copleston. Those forces within the personality would simply overpower one’s ego. to mean the process of identifying with something more than the finite ego.
As Jung puts it. Only then can he become whole and only then can “God be born. Within the one God must be found room for all the opposites encountered in experience. Jung is simply observing that the processes involved in our experience of God are those of the unconscious. What is of interest for this discussion of mysticism is not so much the theological argument assumed. The personification of the unconscious in such concepts enables an involvement of a wide range of emotions. as Jung puts it. including even the opposites of good and evil. man—that is. The monotheism of Western religion and the all-encompassing absolute implied must be taken seriously.” and God becomes outwardly man. is the goal of The Exercitia Spiritualia of Ignatius Loyola: to subordinate “self-possession.”18 Good and evil stand encompassed. but rather the psychological dynamics indicated. to God. conscious ego is inwardly replaced by God. The man who wishes to reach this unity in God. the whole person is challenged and engaged. This. observes Jung. says Jung. in keeping with the saying of Jesus: ‘Who sees me. . Jung’s analysis shows mystical experience to occur when the finite. So Przywara says: “God appears in the cross.” or possession by an ego.” By this act of incarnation. with God being understood as a personification of the numinous qualities of the unconscious.19 There Jung describes mysticism as the shifting of the center of gravity from the ego to the self. even though simply synonyms for the unconscious.”17 For Jung the basic psychic process involved in the mystical experience is clearly the replacing of the conscious ego with the more powerful numinous forces of the unconscious that are called by the Western Christian “God. God is the union of the opposites. will the unavoidable internal contradictions in the image of the creator-God be reconciled in the unity and wholeness of the self. the conflict is redeemed in the Cross. enter into human reality and associate with man in the form of “man. then the way he acts upon us in overpowering mystical experiences is through the psychological processes of the unconscious.74 YOGA AND PSYCHOLOGY The mythic terms mana. particularly via the God archetype. held in tension. fear and reverence. which Jung worked out in detail in his Answer to Job. daimon. so also does the person who surrenders his life to Christ overcome the conflict of the opposites within and achieves unity in God. the uniting of the torn asunder. as it was before. as much as possible to possession by Christ. his ego—is inwardly replaced by “God. A good illustration of this process is offered by Jung in his essay The Holy Men of India. And here Jung is not making a metaphysical claim that God either exists or does not exist. or God.” that is he manifests himself as the crucified Christ. for example.” that is. To put it simply. but rather the opposites within the God-image itself. hate and love. from man.20 Just as Christ manifests the reconciliation of the opposites within God’s nature. sees the Father. prove to be especially effective in the production of mystical experience. and transcended within the one absolute.” As to the content of these overpowering forces of the unconscious—the content of this ‘God’ concept—Jung is more explicit. Only then. In this way. “In the experience of the self it is no longer the opposites ‘God’ and ‘man’ that are reconciled. says Jung. if we assume that God exists.
can only attain this through the Imitatio Christi. A detailed description of the arising of the self in Jungian theory is rather complex and difficult. that is he must take up his cross and accept the conflict of the world and stand in the center of the opposites. God appears empirically in the suffering of the world. The archetypes are constantly trying to “raise up” or “reveal” some of the basic wisdom of humankind. memories. and it is the idea of a “master archetype.” but rather only that. says Jung. that is fundamental for Jung’s analysis of mysticism. it is the self or God archetype which has the power to encompass all aspects of life in a way that is integrated and mature. But this requires the action of the thinking. One who would identify with God. which compose the collective unconscious. feeling. does not seek to escape from the suffering of the world’s conflicts. Of all the archetypes. that “I am Christ. the dreams. for example. the cross image gradually acquires more significance and is carried. therefore. but rather gives up one’s ego and identifies with Christ. In most ordinary experience there is only experience of the conscious level of ego awareness. Being grounded in the collective experience of humankind and being present within the unconscious of each person. as Paul said it in Galatians 2:20. and the predispositions to universal human reactions. which has all the while been struggling upward to reveal itself. and my ego is absorbed into the body of Christ. the archetypes are the psychological mechanisms which enable us to get out from the too-narrow encapsulation of our conscious egos. and feeling—the God archetype is given further individuation.23 It is of course the notion of the archetypes and the collective unconscious which is the trademark of Jung’s thought.21 For the Christian. both conscious stimuli from the external environment and internal impulses from within the personal and collective unconscious must be included. If one remains fixated on the conscious ego. deeply into the psyche until the level of the collective unconscious is reached.” namely. the seeing of an ordinary wooden cross on a building in a Christian culture. and repressions which comprise the personal unconscious. To be comprehensive. its limited internal and external awareness will result in only a small portion of the stimuli available from all three levels of consciousness being included. First there is the encounter of some external stimuli. the archetypes. sensing. “I enter the body of Christ through his scars. the “self ” or “God” archetype. in the pain produced by the conflict between the opposites. Then like St. With the help of the other psychic functions—thinking. sensing.M Y S T I C I S M I N J U N G A N D P ATA Ñ J A L I ’ S Y O G A 75 to make God real in himself. In terms of psychological dynamics. Paul. the finite ego has been subordinated to the self. and intuiting functions of the psyche.”22 Jung takes special care to urge that the preceding statement not be understood to mean identity. using both the person’s . Initially the cross has no mystical significance and functions only at the ego-conscious level as a secular sign to designate the building as a church. By attempting to unite mystically with Christ. But over the years as one matures. I no longer live but Christ lives in me. by the process of intuition. It is Jung’s view that each of us shares in three different levels of consciousness: the conscious level of the ego. that He lives in us. There the God archetype. resonates sympathetically with the cross image and its Christian content of the crucified Christ.
it occurred as a symbol . Second the mandala symbol wonderfully . to which everything is related.. in addition. then the personal unconscious.. the mystical character of Jung’s self-realization experience. it appeared independently in the dreams of his modern patients. that the cross image is something much more than merely a sign to indicate that a building is a church. Whereas in the East the mandala served as a symbol both to clar. For Jung the man d ala was a pictorial representation of the circumam.27 Even though Jung felt that there were very definite differences between the mystical experiences of Eastern and Western religions.. that makes it a suitable symbol for mystical experience. . bulation process of development which he took to be basic to the personality. Jung puts it as follows: The mandala’s basic motif is the premonition of a center of personality. . as the self.. Although the center is represented by an innermost point. This totality comprises consciousness first of all. . it is the man d ala’s characteristic of having an individualized center. First. Jung observes that initial indications often appear in dreams. . an image. Although the cross and the crucified Christ are expected symbols of mystical selfrealization in Christian cultures. Thus.. now it is a sense of profound identity with the universal self which dominates. panding outward with the potential to include everything. This is the mystical moment of illumination when the ego becomes aware of the larger and deeper collective dimension of consciousness and reality. and which is itself a source of energy. there occurs what Jung describes as a shift in the center of gravity within the psyche from the ego to the self. a kind of central point within the psyche. by which everything is arranged. In religious terms it may be variously described as a sudden or a gradual awakening in a moment of synchronicity. for meditation in almost all great religions. perhaps for the first time. conveyed the sense of development around the center that included all sides and left nothing out. As . the cross and the figure of Christ simply being seen as routine parts of everyday life to be manipulated by the ego for its own purposes. the cross is now sensed as being numinous—as having a power and meaning about it which causes the conscious ego to pale by comparison. As the cross symbol becomes more complete. and. One is simultaneously united on the various levels within the psyche and taken out beyond the finite limitations of the ego.76 YOGA AND PSYCHOLOGY own creativity and the materials presented by a particular cultural tradition until the mystical revelation occurs. Rather than the church building. yet ex. but if one may so express it. the psychological processes involved seemed very similar. and the God archetype achieves full individuation at the level of conscious awareness. This center is not felt or thought of as the ego. it is surrounded by a periphery containing everything that belongs to the self—the paired opposites that make up the total personality.25 But the key is that whereas previously things were experienced in a narrow egocentric way.26 Two things about the man d ala symbol impressed Jung.. One becomes vaguely aware.24 when the symbol being created first reaches the level of the personal subconscious. and finally an indefinitely large segment of the collective unconscious whose archetypes are common to all mankind. Jung found the mandala to be the most universal.
”30 Jung is very careful to make clear the subtle psychological differences in the way that unity is experienced: “Between the Christian and the Buddhist mandala there is a subtle but enormous difference. .’”31 At bottom both statements express a fundamental sense of unity. . In mysticism. and unity were highlighted. with various levels of mystical impurity being caused by obscuring emotions not yet purged from the perception. ‘Not I. but in Jung’s view. the way the unity is experienced is altogether different. but Christ liveth in me.29 While both Eastern and Western mysticism bear witness to the sense of transcendent unity that such philosophers as Walter Stace have called “the core of mysticism. as in the other areas of psychological functioning. is the necessary foundation for mystical experience. According to his Yoga psychology. however. so also the presentation and evoking of the proper relationship between God and man in Christian religion was expressed in the symbol of Christ or the cross. The Christian during contemplation would never say. Yoga psychology. ‘I am Christ’ but will confess with Paul. In his Commentary on the Secret of the Golden Flower. The Western statement “Christ liveth in me” implies not a de. union. and found in it the same sense of symbolic unity contained in the ancient Taoist Chinese text. says: ‘Thou wilt know that thou art the Buddha. the transcendent unity of the self needs the individual ego in order to be known. ¯ ego (ahamkara)—the very aspect of the psyche that Jung felt to be essential. The mystical sense of the unity of the observer with all things requires an ego-observer as a basic prerequisite for that experience. It is worth noting at the outset that in Yoga theory a major cause of obscuring emotion is the individual .33 It will be recalled that the Western philosopher Stace defines mysticism in just such a perceptual way so as to avoid Russell’s criticism that mystical experience is merely subjective emotion and as such has no direct touch with reality. and the finite ego needs to be superceded by the transcendent self if integration and enlightenment are to occur.32 From Jung’s perspective a complementary relationship between the ego and the self. from which distorting subjective emotions have been ¯ purged. Patañjali’s claim is exactly the opposite. between the individual and the divine. or substantive qualities (gun as): sattva . following the Sankhya theory of Indian philosophy. M Y S T I C I S M I N T H E Y O G A P S Y C H O L O G Y O F P ATA Ñ J A L I Patañjali’s Yoga psychology approaches mysticism as a case of intuition.’ [The Buddhist] sutra. and these were universally reported as characteristics of mystical experience. The Buddhist statement “Thou art the Buddha” or the Hindu Upanisadic teaching “I am Brahman” requires complete removal of the individual ego or ahamkara.M Y S T I C I S M I N J U N G A N D P ATA Ñ J A L I ’ S Y O G A 77 ify the nature of the deity philosophically and to aid in the development of that divine nature within one’s own personality. As Jung saw it. Jung supported this contention of the commonness of mystical experience. or supersensuous perception (pratibha). mystical experience is a case of the direct supersensuous perception of reality.28 In both cases the senses of completeness. ¯ struction of the ego but rather an invasion or possession by God so that the individual ego continues to exist only now as servant of the Lord. Jung simply would not accept the claim of Yoga thought that there could be conscious experience without a finite ego as the experiencer. He analyzed a mystical experience reported by Edward Maitland. the biographer of Anna Kingsford.34 conceives ¯ of consciousness as composed of three aspects.
or. The object referred to in this description may be any finite aspect of reality. a word.”38 The ability of the mind to function in a crystal-like fashion requires a sattva dominance within consciousness. One of the main tasks of the spiritual teacher. and then shines according to the form of the object. ¯ Patañjali begins his analysis with a general description of the mystical state of mind. is inherent in all of reality. dominant gun a will be easily recognized in a particular thought or perception. such as Lord Siva or Mother Kali. and is defined as a supernormal per¯ ¯ ception that transcends the ordinary categories of time. illumination. or pure discriminative awareness. and has the capacity to directly “grasp” or “see” the real nature of things. with sattva becoming dominant. or in some other form. If a “psychological cross-section” were taken through an ordinary state of consciousness. it may be nothing other than the flow of conI´ sciousness itself—mind (citta) taking itself as the object of its own meditation. to be determined by inference. and therefore their presence will have . or linguistic symbol such as OM. Rather. no indi. Since in Eastern thought it is generally held that the divine or absolute. causality. other two gunas will be present but subordinate. intelligence). when engaged in mantra chanting also functions in the same way. there is a noticeable lack of sattva. space. the three gun as are always necessarily . At its . sense organs. Tao. found together like three strands of a rope. which in Sanskrit is technically termed samadhi. is to guide the student in selecting an object of meditation to the one that will be the most helpful. The purpose of the object is simply to give the beginner a point of focus for his concentration. it may be an image of Brah´ man. Although each of these gun as keeps its own separate identity.36 It is this mystical experience of pure sattva intuition that is given detailed psychological analysis in sutras I: ¯ 41–51 of Patañjali’s Yoga Sutras.78 YOGA AND PSYCHOLOGY (brightness. it may be the example set by the master Yogi ¯ ¯s vara. . In samadhi the mind (citta) is so in¯ ¯ tensely focused upon the object of meditation that the ordinary sense of the observer being separated from the object of study is overcome. However. However. It may be some part of nature such as a flowing stream. it is as if the mind has become a transparent crystal that ¯ clearly reflects or transforms itself into the shape of the object being studied. There is a sense of being one with the object. in mystical experience the proportionate composition of consciousness by the gun as is reversed.35 Only the pre. consequently it helps the process if the object exhibits a natural attractiveness to the student. The . As Patañjali puts it. and their everyday experiences.39 As we saw in our part I discussion of language. verse. movement). or guru.37 Vyasa clarifies the intended meaning as follows: “As the crystal becomes colored by the color of the object placed beside it. height a pure sattva experience would be like the direct transparent viewing of reality with no emotional (rajas) or bodily (tamas) distortion intervening. The process is . at the most esoteric level. This is technically termed nirvicara samadhi in Indian mysticism. and tamas (dullness. especially in its evolved forms of ego. inertia). Buddha. so the mind is colored by the color of the object presented to it and then appears in the form of the object. vidual gun a ever exists independently. rajas (emotion. therefore any aspect of reality may be suitably selected as an object for meditation. In our routine states of consciousness. whether it be conceptualized as Brahman. the proportionate composition of consciousness assigned to each of the gun as is constantly changing. there would be a dominance of tamas and rajas.
M Y S T I C I S M I N J U N G A N D P ATA Ñ J A L I ’ S Y O G A 79 not unlike that proposed by Jung where some object. Vyasa explains that this mixed-up experience of the object has a twofold cause. or confusion. It is impure. says Patañjali in Yoga Sutra I: 42. there is the distortion caused by the habitual way in which word labels have been used to classify objects in this and previous lives. This has the mixingup effect (vikalpa) within consciousness of causing our experience to be dominated by the conventional word labels of our language and culture (for example. and therefore it is simply psychologically impossible. are the cognitive inferences based upon the conceptual meaning which the perception of the object evokes in our mind (for example. a Christian view or a materialistic view) or may be made up by one’s own imaginative thinking. ¯ Of the four states of object samadhi. and potential”). With this objection in mind. In the second half of Vyasa’s commentary on Yoga Sutra I: 42. The other causes of vikalpa. dignity. And it is just such an attainment which Jung refuses to accept as possible. this results in a state with no knower to experience it. “a child is a gift of God to be treasured and loved” or “a child is a constant source of emotional frustration and a continuous drain upon the bank account”). however. such as a cross. ¯ On the one hand. it is immediately apparent that while both Patañjali and Jung begin with an object as a point of focus. or the direct unlimited oneness with reality. In Jung’s view. the second level of ¯ ¯ object samadhi is defined as one in which the habitual patterns of past word usage and ¯ the biased patterns of inferential thinking are purged from the mind. “a brown-eyed child of a quiet. it simply becomes transformed in one’s experience from a surface sign to a deeply meaningful and in some sense universal symbol which mediates and integrates reality. which is a limited symbol and therefore only partially able to mediate or manifest reality. Only then can reality be fully “seen.” with the connotation “just another child”) rather than by the perception of the object that is uniquely occurring at that moment (for example. reflective mood with unfathomable beauty. saying “child. the kind of samadhi achieved is ¯ one that is obscured by the habitual way in which we give the object in view a word label (“stereotype it”) and give it a biased or slanted coloring in our thinking. Such cognitive inferences are either accepted from the traditional systems of thought of one’s culture or belief (for example. expects that the finite object. let us now examine Patañjali’s description of the four levels of increasingly pure object samadhi and the final state of ¯ objectless samadhi. the lowest or most impure is called savi¯ tarka. Only then is the sattva or crystalline aspect of consciousness freed from the rajas or emotional obscuration so that “the object makes its appearance in the mind in its own distinct nature . must in the end be transcended.40 For most of us then. Patañjali’s Yoga. because the sattva “reflection” of ¯ the object is obscured by a mixing up within consciousness of the following ingredi´ ents: the word (S abda) used in conventional speech to label that object. provides the starting point for the subsequent individuation of the archetype into a symbol. and the direct perception (jñana) of the object ¯ itself. because it would require that the knowing ego. as one of the finite objects within consciousness.” It is this final state of unlimited congruence with reality (objectless samadhi) that is ¯ held by Patañjali to be the highest mystical state. even when we manage to block out external distractions and concentrate sufficiently so as to become “caught up into oneness” with the object of our meditation. be transcended. the conceptual meaning (artha) of that object. Jung never leaves the object. However.
Francis had of the animals. for example. On the contrary. as Stace suggested. or mysterious. In savicara experience. as we put it. namely. in his gloss. In the savicara state. one might identify the knowledge Amos had of Israel. a mystical ¯ state reaches the nirvicara level when it is. The third level is called savicara ¯ samadhi. differs only from savicara in that ¯ ¯ ¯ in the nirvicara the limitation to the present moment in space and time is overcome. the two higher levels are directed toward the inner essence—what might today be called the atomic or microcosmic structure of the object.80 YOGA AND PSYCHOLOGY (unmixed up with word and meaning). The only distinguishing characteristics given to the experience are provided by the object itself. According to Vyasa. This does not ¯ mean one lapses into some sort of stupor.45 or St. seem to approximate that of sense perception—only on a supernormal level. It is as vivid and immediate as is possible for one who habitually lives at the lower levels of awareness to imagine. ¯ Now the yogin is so completely one with the object that he is one with all its past states. the flow of consciousness so completely identifies ¯ ¯ with the object alone that the mind is as it were “devoid of its own nature. the two high- . there is no need to try to verbalize that greatness in words. Nirvicara. ´ points out that the yogi or mystic himself has no need to verbalize such truths. An example of such a nirvicara state might be the knowledge that a ¯ lover of a particular person realizes when the other person is so completely known that. From the perspective of Patañjali’s Yoga psychology.44 Jesus had of the Samaritan woman at the well. Descriptions of such states are offered in Yoga Sutras I: 43 and 44. says Vyasa. since he has it as a primary experience. but it is knowledge only as of the present moment in space and time. “they are like an open book. realizing however that the very speaking of them will necessarily add rajas or emotional distortion due to the usage of words and imagination. and shares fully in the various possibilities of the future. what is implied is that one is so “caught-up” in the object that there is no room left for a separate awareness of one’s own ego as the thing that is having the experience.” It is this purified state ¯ of perception. as well as its present moment. This is the highest level of knowledge of a finite object which may be reached. vague. or the final stage of object samadhi.”41 The technical term for this state is nirvitarka samadhi and may be translated as “distinct mystical perception. The last limitations of space and time are transcended. The object in all its vividness of both external characteristics and internal qualities totally commands one’s attention. Mystical experience of this sort is far from being misty. The yogin’s knowledge (“knowing by becoming one with”) of the object is complete. as it were.” In the Christian tradition.42 Whereas the two lower levels of object samadhi are based upon the gross or outer ¯ form of the object. void of its own nature and be¯ comes the object itself. when you are hearing the greatness of the music. One has forgotten oneself. although the distinctions be¯ come so subtle as to virtually deify conceptualization. Vacaspati Mis ra. But because of compassion for others. the mystic speaks these truths. that becomes the seed or basis for new verbal or inferential ¯ knowledge. the truths taught by the mystics (yogins)—the truths they have learned from this higher form (nirvitarka) of perception. Its psychological nature would. awareness of the ob¯ ject includes both its gross form and its microcosm or inner essence but is limited in space and time to the present.”43 I take Vyasa to mean by this that there is a complete loss of ego-consciousness.
In agreement with the authors previously discussed. No longer does the yogin ¯ meditate on an object. This shift of the center resulted in more of the sum total of reality being experienced and included within the personality. the yogin or mystic must be constantly on guard against the temptation to use such powers. Patañjali. as will naturally come to one. This breadth of awareness means that one participates in the conflicts of the opposing forces which constitute the world. mind. it was Jung’s view that in mystical experience there was a replacing of the conscious ego with the more powerful numinous forces of the unconscious arising from the God or self archetype. and fear—opposites of a true mystical experience. leaving only the steady transformation of pure sattva consciousness into the form of the object. The duality of subject and object is overcome. With regard to the degree of ego loss involved. although very familiar with psychic powers (siddhis) such as levitation. In the Christian context. To do that.47 . The mystic consciousness has so fully become one with the object that it no longer appears as an object of consciousness. Consequently. According to both Sa nkhya theory and Yoga psychology. by fasting. greed.46 ¯ The highest level of mystical realization in Patañjali’s yoga is reached when even the limitation of focusing on a finite object is left behind. not even such an exhalted object as the Lord himself. would only further attachment to egoic states such as pride. which is revealed to be nothing other than the pure discriminative consciousness of the true self (purus a). There remains only the pristine existence of reality itself. and sense organs with their component rajas or emotion have been dropped off or transcended. there is a shifting of the center of gravity within the personality from ego to self. for one’s own fame and fortune. from man to God. ¯ knowing consciousness. Now consciousness turns in upon itself and becomes one with its own self-luminous nature. The mystical experience is comprehensive of both conscious stimuli from the external environment and internal impulses from within the personal and collective unconscious. But there was definite disagreement about the degree of ego loss which occurs and about the kind of psychological process which is mainly responsible for the mystic’s identification with the larger transcendent reality. in this state there is only pure ¯. this is expressed as the suffering of Christ and is symbolized by the cross. or as side effects of true spiritual meditation.M Y S T I C I S M I N J U N G A N D P ATA Ñ J A L I ’ S Y O G A 81 est levels of object samadhi are characterized by a complete self-forgetting or egoless¯ ness. sama dhi. Yoga Sutras I: 50 and 51 de¯ scribe the establishment of “seedless. THE PSYCHOLOGIES OF JUNG A N D P ATA Ñ J A L I C O M P A R E D The preceding review of Jungian psychology and Patañjali’s Yoga shows both points of agreement and difference. allowing the thing-itself (svarupa) to shine forth in itself alone.48 warns against confusing such attainments with true mystical experiences. Special powers may be produced by drugs. . As he put it.” or objectless. The ego loss envisaged by Jung is the loss required so that . Both authors agree with the definition of mystical experience presented by the philosophers at the outset as being characterized by a loss of the sense of finite ego and a corresponding increased identification with a transcendent spiritual reality. The lower “filtering organs” of ego (aham kara). says Patañjali.
However. Jung followed James in pointing to the unconscious as the locus of mystical experience. In addition to the limiting factor of the individual ego being removed. Patañjali. “Does mystical experience point to an objective reality or is it merely a subjective phenomenon?” Now the psychological question must be added. has already gone well beyond Jung’s more limited Western point of view. the Lord himself.82 YOGA AND PSYCHOLOGY one could say with Paul. “Is unlimited consciousness of the fullness of reality psychologically possible?” This question will be given further discussion in the following chapter on Yoga and the transpersonal psychologists. that is the highest mystical experience. for Patañjali’s Yoga the ego was nothing more than a limiting and distorting emotional obscuration which had to be removed if the real was to be fully known. mystical experience. ¯ the presence of ego and its habitually limiting ways of perceiving and thinking rendered the mystical experience impure. Jung seems to follow the lead of Rudolf Otto and William James. Such complete and direct experience of some objective aspect of reality requires that the mystic not allow his or her own ego and mental processes to get in the way. in ¯ which consciousness becomes one with its own self-luminous nature. “It is no longer I who live. in the higher states of savicara. something of the fullness of reality will have been “dropped off ” to enable the limited incarnation to take place. necessarily also involves the other psychological processes of feeling. even if the object of one’s meditation be an incarnation of the divine. the ultimate state has still to be reached according to Yoga. the processes of emotion and thinking had to be purged until only pure perception remained. for Patañjali. with his requirement for a complete negation of ego. it is the objectless samadhi. Thus.” With regard to the kind of psychological processes involved. thinking. . whereas Patañjali is much closer to the approach suggested by Walter Stace. Jung. but Christ who lives in me. to a large extent.” and that differs so radically from the Christian “Christ lives in me. and sensing. Whereas in Jung’s view the mystical experience of reality required the continued existence of an ego in order to be known. although it may begin with intuition. appealed to the model of sense perception. for Yoga the opposite condition of complete consciousness is identified as the mystical. For the Yoga point of view. In the face of the earlier comparative psychological study. “Can there be mystical experience without an individual ego?” Or put another way.and ¯ nirvicara-samadhi. Jung correctly recognized that there was a fundamental disagreement between himself and Patañjali over the degree of ego loss involved in mystical experience.” The ego has not been totally lost or discarded but merely made into a servant of the Lord. the full mystic experience requires that reality be experienced in its completeness and not in just the limited form of a finite object as one point of meditation. like Stace. Although Patañjali. In the two lower states of savitarka. followed Otto’s suggestion of an analogy to aesthetic experience. For Patañjali. It is such an experience that is indicated by phrases such as “I am Brahman” or “I am Buddha.and nirvitarka-samadhi. In Jung’s analysis. we find ourselves left with what is perhaps a new and expanded version of Stace’s question. the mind by virtue of being completely devoid of its own ego is able ¯ ¯ to be perfectly transparent to the object being meditated upon.
as we saw in the previous chapter. In Jung’s view. when it comes to the Yoga ideal of a perfected state (the ji van-mukta) in which no personal ¯ consciousness exists but only omniscient awareness. it is set in the esoteric conventions of aphorisms and commentaries that characterized the scholarly style of early classical India. in terms of epistemology. since there would not be an ego to experience anything. Eliade opened it to the West in his 1954 Le Yoga: lmmortalité et Liberté (translated by Willard Trask and published in 1958 as Yoga: Immortality and Freedom). Jung is paralleling Kant’s claim that. “We shall not attempt to 83 . Yet even they draw a clear line beyond which they will not go. such as Carl Jung. Eliade concludes his study by observing that. the Yoga claim that human nature is not finite. Consequently it is difficult for the modern mind to appropriate.1 While these conflicting assessments of the perfectibility of human nature await a definitive study. as we have shown in chapters 6 and 7. While he gives much helpful clarification of esoteric terms and practices. that its ego limitations can be transcended to the point of perfection. In drawing this firm line against the Yoga claims of the perfectibility or limitlessness of human nature. This fact is especially evident when the Yoga psychologies of the East are compared with the transpersonal psychologies of the West.8 The Limits of Human Nature in Yoga and Transpersonal Psychology Views of the limits and perfectibility of human nature differ fundamentally between much of Eastern and Western thought. Total overcoming of the ego would result not in omniscience—the Yoga claim—but in a state of unconsciousness. namely. are greatly drawn to Yoga psychology and influenced by it. human nature is finite—it can never know “the thing itself ”— and the theological claim of Christianity that human nature is fatally flawed. as Yoga claims to do. it is simply not psychologically possible to dispense with the knowing ego.2 While the translation of Patañjali’s Yoga Sutras has been available in En¯ glish for many years. a number of recent books have begun to lay the groundwork for a solution. Transpersonal psychologists. The opportunity for Western scholars to understand the Yoga claims is advanced by the availability in English translation of Jean Varenne’s Yoga and the Hindu Tradition.
egoless. the Jivan-Mukti-Viveka of ¯ Vidyaranya. let us ¯ take a moment to examine it in more detail. since it is obtained by ‘death’ to the human condition and rebirth to a transcendent mode of being. The jivan-mukti notion goes further in providing detailed description and discussion of exactly what such an egoless state of salvation or release is like when experienced before death. has removed all karma and ego-sense. Ramana Maharshi or Sri Aurobindo) varying interpretations of the idea are found. some attainable in the body and some not. reach that same perfected state—the goal of all religion.”5 One thing is common.” is a unique idea in Hindu thought. namely that all experiences of ego-sense must be transcended for the realization of the ji van-mukti state. As ji van-mukti.. the basic texts of Hindu scripture. 700 CE) to contemporary scholars (e. the Yogi does not vanish. Just as when the potter finishes making a pot. and this helped to inspire development of ¯. This is where the ji van-mukti ¯ ¯ idea connects with the discussion of this chapter over the very possibility of an egoless state. its psychological make-up. a parallel concept in Hindu thought. whereas the Yoga psychology of . “In addition to disputes about the possibility of embodied liberation. it cannot be reduced to our categories. so also the body of one who has realized release. tion while in the body. the ¯. Although the individual ego-personality is claimed to have been transcended. he or she does so only for the purpose of helping others. Western thought rejects the idea of egolessness. She . continues on for a while—a few more revolutions as it were—out of its own inertia. Patricia Mumme7 notes that the seed ideas of the jivan-mukti notion are found in several passages of the Upanis ads. philosophy. the wheel continues from its own inertia to turn a few more revolutions.”3 Like Eliade. or stages of liberation. The analogy runs as follows. proposed the analogy of the potter’s wheel to help explain how em¯. suggests the Buddhists may have contributed the idea that release from karma could be achieved in a living state called nirva n a..4 Fort notes. and omnipresence that we find in the Yoga Sutras. ¯ ¯ bodiment could continue in a karma-free. there are differing views on the types. offers a systematic analysis of the evidence for the state of living libera¯ .g. offering the opportunity to be a guru and teach others. In his authoritative studies. such as students. In fact a classical Hindu text of the fourteenth century CE. Sarvepali Radhakrishnan) and saints (e. highly respected parentage. the Advaita .84 YOGA AND PSYCHOLOGY describe this paradoxical condition.6 The text specifically distinguishes between the more usual Western notion of liberation after death through release from the body and the jivan-mukti state of liberation while still alive ¯ ¯ and embodied. and psychology. or “living liberation. as the Yoga Sutras and other such texts logically suggest should ¯ happen.g. liberated. there is no consensus on exactly what one is liberated from or to. Samkhya Karika. Andrew Fort finds that while most agree that salvation or release can be realized in this life. indeed. Varenne finds the texts describing the perfected Yogi to be paradoxical.¯ ¯ Patañjali assumes its necessity for release from rebirth (sam sara). To continue with a physical body and all its sensory and cognitive limitations does not square with the claims of omniscience. degrees. The ji van-mukti tradition has a long and ¯ ´ . however. and its purpose. Among the Hindu schools. From Sankara (c. A foundational text of the Sankhya School. that is. The usual response to this paradox in the Yoga texts is that while there is ¯ no necessity for the perfected yogi to retain a body. and enlightened person.
The potter’s wheel analogy is employed to explain why. in seeking to engage current ideas of ecumenism and social concern for all with traditional jivan-mukti thinking. They are the transpersonal psychologists. as a twentieth century jivan-mukta. The example offered in the text of one who exemplifies this state is ¯s vara. or one who has achieved lib¯ eration while embodied. the modern Yoga commentator Hariharananda Aranya calls this the state of jivanmukti. And. as Chapple notes. One piece of evidence is the frank acknowledgment that therapy (developing the ego-self ) is not the same as liberation (insight into the falsity of the ego-self ). ¯ and removed from the flow of consciousness.” so to be “together” is not to be liberated.10 When the last sam skara is burnt up. Ramana Maharshi. examine objects that are separate from us. liberation or release from rebirth can be gradually diminished.T H E L I M I T S O F H U M A N N AT U R E 85 Vedanta has made the most use of the jivan-mukti concept and has continued its de¯ ¯ velopment right up to the present.8 Indeed the contemporary neo-Vedantists. as the subjects. we all have experiences in which we seem to lose our sense of separation and are caught up into the object. For the contemporary reader. it is clear there that through practice of the eight ¯ . in the seeing of a sunset.11 ¯ Even before reaching the ultimate point. ¯ thus directly challenging more limited Western views of the perfectibility of human nature. have made the concept into a universal truth that holds for all. once release is realized. Yet it clearly transcends our normal Western understanding of the limits of perception and cognition that characterize human nature. in the hearing of music. the Yoga Sutras provide a detailed tech¯ nical description of four levels of direct knowing that transcend subject-object separation. the master yogi I´ who all devotees are to emulate. as the text calls them. The Yoga Sutra analysis of ¯ such union or object-samadhi experiences is theoretically sophisticated and cannot be ¯ easily dismissed. “identity” in this sense is an obstacle. The neo-Vedantists even offer the contemporary example of the Hindu saint. or in the moment of religious devotion.13 . While much of our daily experience is characterized by experiences in which we. Varenne provides a fully contextualized presentation of Yoga that is interesting and readable. As “to be nice is not to be saved.9 Returning to the Yoga Sutras. to Advaitins. Having a “well-adjusted” ego structure is different from transcending one’s identity. a small group of thinkers study the Eastern texts and go some distance toward accepting the Yoga claims. one retains a body at all. can be “burned up” ¯ . Andrew Fort suggests that the transpersonal psychologists are showing some understanding and acceptance of Eastern thought. the source of ignorance of true identity with unlimited pure consciousness. then one is released from rebirth and omniscience is realized.12 These four levels of object samadhi were given detailed discussion in the ¯ previous chapter. so called because they argue that humans are capable of transcending their personal limitations to varying degrees. ¯ steps (Yoganga) the karmic obscurations or sam skaras (memory traces) that obstruct ¯. as when we “lose ourselves” in sexual orgasm. Through intense Yogic meditation (tapas) these seed states (bigas). While most Yoga claims regarding subject-object or ego transcendence are scorned by mainstream North American psychology.
triphasic. return to the Ground.”15 This higher stage is reached when the ego is properly rooted in its Dynamic Ground. and dialectic: dynamic. latter childhood and middle adulthood. and suggests that prayer can be of either type. however. When it comes to the crucial question of the degree to which transcendence of the ego is possible. such as Jung’s active imagination. Washburn’s theory is dynamic. Washburn remains resolutely Western and rooted in a Jewish or Christian position.”16 For Washburn.” the mental ego gives up its autonomy and opens itself by regression to recover its roots in the Dynamic . and superego by removing the superego and reinterpreting the id by adding to it positive elements of the divine. like Jung’s God archetype or the Hindu self (atman. the mental ego experiences the existential anguish of alienation. through repression. can be transcended and that a higher. and a final trans-egoic integration. here “regression is in service of transcendence. as ordinarily constituted. ego. guilt. Unlike the existentialists who take such anguish to be the essence of the human condition. when the ego dissociates itself from the Dynamic Ground through repression to make growth possible. Washburn sees it as a necessary but passing phase that sets the stage for the growth of self through the regression of the mental ego to its true foundation in the Dynamic Ground. Washburn presents his theory over against the transpersonal theory of Ken Wilbur and in contrast to the structural-hierarchial paradigms of Piaget and Kohlberg. Washburn is strongly influenced by Jung’s notion of the individuation of the God. Unlike Freud. and despair. which for Washburn is the psychological locus of the divine. and (3) trans-egoic or latter adulthood. in that human development is seen as occurring in three principal stages: (1) pre-egoic. in that progress through the stages is not straightforward but a back-and-forth process of negation of the Ground. or self. and dialectical. He suggests that meditation is an aid to this process and identifies two types: concentrative. a period in which the Dynamic Ground dominates a weak and underdeveloped ego. Washburn has simplified Freud’s id. (2) egoic. Although freed from domination by the Dynamic Ground. the divine within one). in The Ego and the Dynamic Ground.14 Washburn’s thesis is that “the ego. trans-egoic plane or stage of life is possible. such as Patañjali’s Yoga. Through “regression in the service of transcendence. What results is a ¯ bipolar psyche consisting of ego and Dynamic Ground that interact in different ways at each stage of development. from its Dynamic Ground so as to create a mental ego. in that the primary focus is on the ego’s interaction with the Dynamic Ground. personality development begins in a period of dialectical conflict between the dominant Dynamic Ground (symbolized as the Great Mother and the Oedipal Father) and the weak ego. sets forth a new paradigm for psychological development that bridges Freud and Jung and draws on both Eastern and Western religions. triphasic. and reflective. This the ego does by dissociating itself. which is attempting to strengthen and grow. in which a strong and matured ego is integrated with the Dynamic Ground. archetype as being the height of personality development. At this point.86 YOGA AND PSYCHOLOGY Just how far do the transpersonal psychologists extend the limits of human nature? Michael Washburn. Washburn sides with Freud against Jung in his retention of repression and regression as the major psychological mechanisms for maturation.
17 In the modern West it is the highly individualized self that enables one to function in a society that emphasizes personal autonomy. sharply differentiates between self and others. views of human nature are strongly culturally conditioned. The modern Western self is characterized by “I-ness. Roland’s book adds crucial psycho-social dimensions to our study of Yoga.18 This. where the aim is the pursuit and proliferation of mental structures as unifiers of reality. attempted to apply therapeutic theories based upon these Western concepts (e. The ideal is seen in terms of varying degrees of individualism from competitiveness to selfactualization. says Roland. social patterns. blessedness.” In his In Search of Self in India and Japan. Hartman) to patients from India. Erikson. Roland shows that psychological structuring is embedded in distinct views of human nature. It is clear that for him human nature is limited. It is clear that according to Roland. he found that they did not work because a different conception of human nature and self was operative.. saintly compassion. Indian patients in both New York and India manifested an extended view of human nature and a familial sense of self. and bliss. and childrearing practices of various cultures. religion. the body. ecstasy. The experiential sense of self is the “We-Self ” rather than the “ISelf. For the Indian mind. Freud. When Roland.” has self-contained outer boundaries. The end goal is the transforming of the subjective consciousness rather than the exercise of our specific mental structures in controlling the environment. This leads to integration of the instincts. Knowledge is pursued to discover the conceptual unity behind the diverse phenomena. such as prophetic vision. a New York psychiatrist. there is no ultimate subject-object duality. there is constant interchange through permeable ego boundaries and high levels of empathy and receptivity to others. and mystical illumination. particular mental structures of the individual must be dismantled until only pure consciousness remains. and the individualistic limits that typify Western experience cannot be assumed to be universal. For this spiritualized self to be realized. It catches vital nuances of self-experience . and the external world in experiences of awe.” The ideal is focused not on the individual self but on the self of the hierarchical extended family and ultimately on the universal spiritual self (atman) that is within ¯ everyone.g. A weakness of this otherwise original and creative approach is that discussion of the final achievements of integration. Roland demonstrates that the concept of ‘self ’ varies radically according to culture.T H E L I M I T S O F H U M A N N AT U R E 87 Ground. By contrast. Washburn adopts a negative assessment of the possibility of egoless and objectless states of concentration (the Yoga claim). are given only minimal development. But the ego itself can never be completely transcended. and our general view of human nature. Alan Roland sees the transcendence of the individual embodied in Yoga psychology from the quite different perspective of the “extended self. nature is to be lived in. is the exact opposite of the West. transcendence reaches its height in the degree to which the ego by surrendering its autonomy is infused and illumined by the divine spirit of the Dynamic Ground. The overall goal is to control the object rather than to change the subject—the goal of Indian Yoga disciplines. Within the extended family. the Western mind takes a fundamental dualism between subject and object to be universally valid. not mastered. and has narcissistic structures of self-regard.
. Next he identifies himself with his mental nature as a sentient percipient being (manomaya purusha). a series of books established a new movement in the field of psychology called “transpersonal psychology. he identifies himself with the body. Tart attempts a beginning to such answers in his Transpersonal Psychologies by treating modern Western psychology as just one among many psychologies. Next he identifies himself with his rational nature and perceives himself as a thinking. and transcendence of the self are pointed to as the contents to be studied by transpersonal psychology. This is his vital self (pranamaya purusha). Finally. This is his aesthetic nature. Roland’s analysis of Indian spiritual experience is somewhat simplistic. the development of the personality from infancy is described as punctuated by changing patterns of self-image or self-identity. Robert Ornstein. So after outlining the assumptions of modern Western empirical psychology in chapter 2. modern Western psychology needs to link up with the esoteric psychologies of other cultures. Yet in spite of these limitations. deliberating. and his book. he identifies himself with his vital nature—that is with various impulses. This is his material self (annamaya purusha). . choosing being (vijnanamaya purusha). in his The Nature of Human Consciousness. is overly influenced by Vedanta philosophy. Tart begins by positioning transpersonal psychology within modern psychological thought as follows: “Transpersonal Psychology. . and desires. A leading transpersonal psychologist. It will be of interest to see how far the transpersonalists were willing to push the limits of the West in opening up to the claims of Yoga psychology. all such assumptions are culturally conditioned. as well as with exploring the limits of human nature. As he effectively demonstrates. Transpersonal Psychologies. In the 1970s. in succeeding chapters.” including Buddhist. through a bold meditative breakthrough in conscious- . written by Haridas Chaudhuri. During the decade of the 1970s. and ¯ shows no sensitivity to the cultural diversity within India. Charles Tart was the leading figure in this group of thinkers. such as the Yoga psychology of Patañjali). . argues for the asking of such fundamental questions as “Is consciousness individual or cosmic?” and “What means are there to extend human consciousness?”21 To answer these questions.” This movement was concerned with integrating Yoga and modern Western psychology. Sufi.88 YOGA AND PSYCHOLOGY that escape philosophical and historical approaches. Roland lead us to question further any assumptions regarding the limited or unlimited character of human nature. .”20 States such as mystical or unitive experiences. or humanistic psychology. In the Yoga chapter. awe.19 In many ways they were more open to Yoga and its challenge to Western views of human limitations than thinkers such as Jung and Washburn were.” says Tart. “is the title given to an emerging force in the psychology field by a group of psychologists . Roland’s book opens important new ground. passions. . When the growing infant becomes aware of himself as an individual entity separate from the mother. he goes on to include what he calls the traditional or esoteric “spiritual psychologies. who are interested in those ultimate human capacities and potentialities that have no systematic place in behaviouristic theory . is their key statement. Ornstein suggests. Next. bliss. . and Hindu Yoga. . classical psychoanalytic theory . Christian.
T H E L I M I T S O F H U M A N N AT U R E 89 ness he discovers the transcendental level of existence and finds his true self there (anandamaya purusha).22 It is this final “bold breakthrough” that is questioned by Western psychologists as stretching the limits of human nature beyond the possible. Indeed. Ornstein. Hick shows himself most open to the claims of the mystics of all traditions. . Vachaspati Mishra’s Gloss on Yoga Sutra IV: 25 offers an explanation of such doubters of Yoga: “For one who does ¯ not ponder at all upon the existence of the self. Hick argues that if indeed “the finite consciousness of the mystic had been dissolved in the Infinite. we should adopt a critical. the doubter naturally does not see the cessation of mental fluctuation claimed by Yoga to be a real possibility. In his recent book. the heretic [who has not practiced the eight aids to yoga under a guru in this or a previous life]—for him . the scholar of comparative philosophy and religion. and the transpersonal psychologists of the 1970s has more to offer than Hick’s interpretation.”25 Stuck in endless questioning and failing to practice Patañjali’s eight steps of Yoga. Washburn. there is no cessation of pondering upon the existence of the self. until it is realized (the Yoga claim) or whether Eastern intuition has overreached itself and is suggesting a goal that may be imagined but is not realizable (as Jung. the Yoga tradition itself anticipates Hick’s “metaphorical rather than literal” move and explains it as the expected psychological state of one . through repeated rebirths. However. Passmore. and other Western thinkers have claimed). there would be no unbroken thread of finite consciousness continuing through the experience and subsequently able to recall it. not seeing the distinction. and hence no possibility of its being reported by a still living mystic. any such mystical reports must not be taken as “literal” but as “metaphorical” in nature. John Hick. in Hick’s view. and ¯ openminded approach to Yoga and its claims. The silent Self shines as the absolute (ke¯ vala). “The dichotomy of subject and object. Yet it is just that breakthrough of ego-limitations to transcendent consciousness that is taken to be the goal of life by Yoga and the other Eastern psychologies and religions. is entirely dissolved. has taken up the question afresh. Thus it seems to me that if individual identity is indeed lost in the ocean of Brahman. witness and his field of observation. spectator and spectacle. curious. . this must be a state from which there is no return. It is the question as to whether such a state of altered consciousness is in reality the goal to be achieved by all of us. In my view. Rather than taking as absolute truth the Western presuppositions that our human nature is limited by its finite. as the unutterable Peace that passeth understanding. Thus. in response to the Yoga and other claims of “union with the Ultimate in this life” Hick argues that such claims must be understood “metaphorically” rather than “literally.”23 Here Chaudhuri is describing the nirvikalpa samadhi state of Patañjali’s Yoga outlined in the previous chapter. The Fifth Dimension. the open-minded approach of Tart.”24 Consequently. individual ego and therefore incapable of realizing the various levels of samadhi that Patañjali’s Yoga describes. Yoga describes this “transcendent consciousness” as a deeper level beyond the subject-object dichotomy and beyond the limitations of a filtering individual ego—a level of pure transcendence experienced as the great Silence. like a drop of water becoming part of the ocean.” Like Jung.
as do the Yoga claims of the human capacity for complete psychological and spiritual union with the divine. is in no position to pass judgment on whether or not such states. The transpersonal psychologists remain open to the possibility that such states may be realizeable and thus show scholarly respect for the Yoga tradition of India. The dominant Western view of the psychological. and spiritual limits of human nature needs careful. claims Yoga. are psychologically possible. epistemological. Such a person. critical re-examination. such as egolessness.90 YOGA AND PSYCHOLOGY who has not seriously taken up the practice of Yoga under a qualified teacher. .
Yoga psychology goes much further than Freud in providing for free choice and for the possibility that the processes of memory and motivation can be transcended. fits well with the modern idea of growth at the synaptic spines. such as Eccles’s experiments on memory and motivation. Yoga psychology has . The Yoga psychology notion of vasanas. when chanted as mantras have power to remove obstructions (karma) from consciousness until release or union with the divine is realized. or con. From the everyday experience of ordinary language to the experience of scripture as divine revelation. as resulting from repetitions ¯ ¯ . For . we observed parallels between the thinking of Freud and Jung on memory and the Yoga conception of karma. or sam skara. ¯ of a particular memory trace. the philosophy and poetry of Bhartrhari is made more credible when interpreted through the psycho. also been seen to influence modern psychologists. India’s traditional psychology. especially the language of scriptures such as the Vedas or syllables like AUM/OM. both Jung and the transpersonalists were found to have a fundamental disagreement with the ultimate claims of Yoga psychology that has important implications for our understanding of the limits of human nature. or habit patterns. logical processes of Patañjali’s Yoga. knowing something of Patañjali’s Yoga helps us to understand the Eastern claim that language. have been shown to be foun¯ dational for the Indian understanding of how language functions both in ordinary communication and in the mantra chanting to achieve release (moksa). We saw that the traditional Yoga explanation of memory in terms of how the gun as. stituents of consciousness. Turning to modern Western psychology. the modern reader. function in various karmic states closely parallels contemporary ideas. The philosophy of language and theology of revelation of the great Indian grammarian Bhartrhari was shown in part I to be made more understandable and practica. However. including Carl Jung and the transpersonalists such as Charles Tart. but disagreed as to the degree to which this choice process is free or determined. We saw that both Yoga and Freud agreed that memory and motivation are parts of a single psychic process which also embodies choice. This book’s contribution is its demonstration that Bhartrhari knew Patañjali’s Yoga psychology and assumed it in his own thinking.9 conclusion The Yoga Sutras of Patañjali. ble when undergirded by Patañjali’s Yoga psychology. 91 .
as the development of the ji ¯vanmukti (living liberation) tradition in India demonstrates. or psychological helicopter that will get us above all biases or assumptions so as to decide which are right or wrong. The Western philosopher John Hick discounts such Yoga claims as being simply metaphors and not be taken as claims to literal truth. especially in the East. My contention is that good comparative scholarship requires that we examine such claims within the presuppositions of their own worldviews. Carl Jung learned some Sanskrit. In Jung’s view any practice leading to transcendence of the individual ego. While Yoga psychology and Eastern thought in general clearly claim that the autonomous individual can and must be transcended for the fullness of life to be achieved. I do not come down on one side or the other in this fundamentally important debate over the limits of human nature—but I find myself fascinated by it. or meditation until union with the divine is realized. in the Yoga claim that the individual ego can be completely transcended and union with pure consciousness realized. philosophical. As we saw in chapter 6. The transpersonal psychologists examined showed varying degrees of openness to the radical nature of this Yoga claim. when taken literally. and knowledge was influenced and supported by Yoga. This debate has profound implications for psychology. not metaphorically. There is no theological. for example. as scholars. And to critically test the claims of Yoga. Yet there is no question that the psychological processes described in the Yoga Sutras are ¯ meant to be taken literally. . limited. one must first ¯ try to master it under the guidance of a teacher or guru. The ongoing argument between traditional Yoga and modern Western psychology over the limits of human nature was further explored in our discussion of the transpersonal psychologists and the comparative philosopher John Hick. Jung felt that this Yoga claim was a psychological projection of an idea that could not be embodied in human experience. Therefore. that the states of consciousness described in the Yoga Sutras are. Using the psychologies of both Jung and Yoga. as Jung put it. and not capable of being opened up by Yoga practices of language. as in the Buddha’s enlightenment experience. to the extent that it is possible. and theology and is deserving of further study. It is the subject of my next book. such as mantra chanting. but more importantly. where he drew the line in his acceptance of Patañjali’s psychology. ¯ and gave lectures on them. but with very different assessments as to the nature and degree of ego-transcendence claimed and achieved. as Jung and Hick do. beyond the possibilities of human experi¯ ence. Only then would one be in a position to conclude. the Western view is that human nature is finite. Jung argued that Patañjali’s failure to distinguish between philosophy and psychology led to Yoga’s over-reaching of itself. We demonstrated how Jung’s thinking on memory. philosophy. read the Yoga Sutras for himself. we must remain critical but open. perception. Our study of Patañjali’s Yoga Sutras has clearly focused the parameters of this ¯ debate—in language and psychology—that is at the root of the disagreement as to the limits of human nature between Eastern and Western thought. will result in the person falling into an unconscious state—not enlightenment. we showed how such mystical experience can be given detailed explanation in terms of psychological process.92 YOGA AND PSYCHOLOGY Unlike Freud. as. say the Yoga Sutras. Yet something like this conception of union with the divine is exactly what is claimed by the mystics.
Press. The Yoga-Sutra of Patañjali. 7. Princeton: Princeton University Press. The Yogasutra of Patañjali. Oxford: Oxford University Press. For a detailed study of this approach. but it is not yet available. 1979. see Harvey Alper (ed.I. 136 ff. IV. See. Patañjali’s Yoga Sutras. More recent translations include Bengali Baba. Bruce K. Rudolf Otto. ¯. xix for the date offered by Woods. For a readable ¯ ¯ ¯´ English translation. Varanasi: Bharati ya Vidya Prakas ana.: M. see Rama Prasada. See. See Mircea Eliade. 1966. 2. The Fifth Dimension. see G.). ¯ . Owen Flanagan. 1989. 1991. 334–366. The Idea of the Holy. Delhi: Moti¯ lal Banarsidass. Yoga: Immortality and Freedom.” Canadian Centre for Policy Alternatives. and T.bc/rootsofaddiction. New York: Oxford University Press. Trask. The Conception of Buddhist Nirvan a.).policyalternatives. and Georg Feuerstein. Gerald Larson is ´ editing the “Yoga” volume of the Encyclopedia of Indian Philosophies published by Motilal Ba. Albany: State University of New York Press.html. 1999. 1987. “The Roots of Addiction in Free Market Society.ca. 4.). for example. pp. p. Folkestone. Indian Psychology: Cognition. London: Mouton. pp. narsidass. New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons. Oxford: Oneworld. 6. The Nature of Consciousness. Ned Block. 5. Allahabad: Bhuvaneswari Asrama. The Integrity of the Yoga Dars ana. p. April 2001. Patañjaliyogadarsanam. ¯ Vol. B. For the San khya background assumed by the Yoga school. 10. Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass.T. 5. John Passmore. 8.C. 93 . H. ¯ 1924. Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass. Vancouver. 16–19. Woods.). Mass.notes CHAPTER ONE I N T RO D U C T I O N 1. Understanding Mantras. 1970. The Yoga-System of Patañjali. by Willard R. 1963. Kent: ¯ Dawson. 1965. 1977. Cambridge. David M. Trans. Alexander. 11. H. and Gwen Guzeldere (eds. A good recent secondary source on the Yoga school is Ian Whicher. Encyclopedia of Indian Philosophies. Sam khya: A Dualist Tradition in Indian Philosophy. The Nature of Mind. John Hick. Stcherbatsky. 1997. 1976. Calcutta: Sinha Publishing House. J. pp. Bhattacharya (eds. The Perfectibility of Man. 1971. Albany: State University of New York Press. 1958. Larson and R. 3. for example.: www. Rosenthal (ed. Jadunath Sinha. 1998. 9. S.
the translator. Translation quoted is by Trevor Leggett.. first published by Harvard University Press. Ibid. vol. W. 1990. trans. 17–18. ´ ¯ ´ . 17.. as quoted in Sankara’s Vivarana and translated by Trevor Leggett. p. by Bangali ¯ ¯ Baba. See my survey of this viewpoint in The Sphot a Theory of Language. 14. 18. Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass. 1991. Woods. 5. All four books have been translated and published by Kegan Paul International in 1990. Eliade. Legett. Yogadars anam of Patañjali. 16–17. 23. p. p. ´ . Delhi: Motilal Ba. p. trans. and in The Philosophy of the Grammarians by Harold Coward and K. T. Delhi: ¯ ¯ ´ ¯ ¯ Oriental Books. 15. 1977. Vyasa on I:25. Swami Hariharananda Aranya. 7. Ibid. M. trans. 20. growing trend to accept the commentary as Sankara’s own. 49. the authenticity of Sankara’s authorship. by Trevor Leggett. ¯ . ´ . ¯ 6.” Issues of Language volume of Ariel. Calcutta: University of Calcutta. ´ . p. 1958. New York: Oxford University Press. S ankara on the Yoga Sutras. Yoga: Immortality and Freedom. Princeton: Princeton University Press. There is debate among scholars over ´ . H. H. p. 108. p. ¯ . ¯ . ¯ 21. 1982. Pamela McCallum. American Academy of Religion. 12. 11. edited by Polkam ¯ ¯¯ ¯. N. 50. Madras: Government Oriental Manuscripts ´ . 94. ´ . S. gives a critical analysis of questions regarding Sankara’s authorship of the Vivaran a . 156. narsidass. and this is the position I shall follow in this book. ´ . 419–423. 65. 3. Mukerji. Woods. Patañjala-Yogasutra-Bhas ya Vivaran am of Sankara-Bhagavatpada. Rukmani. “The Vedantinization of Samkhya. ¯ ¯ 13. 1978. 205–242). Varanasi: Bharati ya Vidya Prakasana. 15–16. London: Routledge and Kegan Paul. 8. Translation by Rama Prasa da of Yoga Sutra I:7. 1976. by J.94 NOTES CHAPTER TWO ¯ AGAMA IN THE ¯ Y O G A SU T R A S O F P ATA Ñ J A L I 1. S ankara on the Yoga Sutras. While the issue remains open. 124. commentary. 1914. English trans´ ¯ ¯ ¯ lations referred to include The Yoga System of Patañjali. p. offers several rea¯. Translation of J. 89. p. p. Ibid. by Rama Prasada. S ankara on the Yoga Sutras. . there seems to be a ´ . . ¯ ¯ 10. Patañjali’s Yoga Sutras ¯ with the Commentary of Vyasa and the Gloss of Vachaspati Mis ra. Yogasutra of Patañjali with the Commentary of Vyasa. Yoga Philosophy of Patañjali. Ibid. p. 1984. 8.” Journal of Indian Philosophy. Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass. 20. Halbfass in Tradition and Reflection (Albany: State University of New York Press. 1952. 15. pp. 29. 1981. Krishnamurthi Sastri. p. translated ¯ by Trevor Leggett. ´ . 1969. Friedrich Heiler. see: S ankara on the Yoga-Sutras. Ibid. takes the text to be Sankara’s. 1963. trans. by P. ¯ 9. 1966. pp. ´ . ¯ ´ . 1980. sons to question Sankara’s authorship.” an unpublished lecture given at ¯ ¯ the Annual Meeting. pp. pp. “The Problem of the Authorship of the Yogasutrabhasyavivarana. Library. Prayer: A Study in the History of Psychology of Religion.. Princeton: Princeton University Press. pp. “Editorial. 4.. See Vachaspati Mis ra’s gloss on Yoga Sutra I:24. 2. 16. S ankara on the Yoga Sutras. 89. Kunjunni Raja. Translation by Rama Prasa da (cited above in note 2). For an English translation of Book I. 75. trans. 19. Gerald Larson. p. 22. in her 1992 article. Sri Rama Sastri and S. R.
23. As an example, see C. G. Jung Letters, vol. 1. London: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1973, p. 247. ´ . 24. Translation by Trevor Leggett, S ankara on the Yoga Sutras, p. 124. ¯ 25. Ibid., p. 125. 26. Ibid. 27. Ibid., p. 126. 28. The contention that “devotion to ¯s vara was chosen by most of the yogis as their path I´ to release” was stated to me by Professor T. R. V. Murti in my reading of this text with him. 29. M. Eliade, Yoga: Immortality, and Freedom, p. 74.
CHAPTER THREE T H E Y O G A P S Y C H O L O G Y U N D E R LY I N G ¯ ¯ B H A R T R H A R I ’ S V A K Y A PA D I Y A . 1. For the Sankhya school, see Vol. IV, Encyclopedia of Indian Philosophies, Sam khya. ¯ ¯ G. Larson and R. S. Bhattacharya (eds.). Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass, 1987. 2. K. A. S. Iyer, Bhartrhari. Poona: Deccan College, 1969. . 3. Gaurinath Sastri, The Philosophy of Word and Meaning. Calcutta: Sanskrit College, 1959. See also Sastri’s recent The Philosophy of Bhartrhari. Delhi: Bharativa Vidya Prakashan, 1991. . 4. Another contemporary scholar, K. Kunjunni Raja, recognizes the importance of the psychological side of Bhartrhari’s thought but analyzes it in terms of modern European associ. ationalist psychology, a theory completely foreign to Bhartrhari’s thought and the thought . forms of his day. See his Indian Theories of Meaning. Adyar: Adyar Library, 1963. 5. See Harold Coward and K. Kunjunni Raja, The Philosophy of the Grammarians. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1990, pp. 44–50. 6. Patañjali’s Yoga Sutras, I:24–29. ¯ 7. Ibid., I:24–25. 8. Ibid., II:18, bhas ya. ¯. 9. Ibid., I:26. 10. Ibid., I:25. 11. Ibid., I:24. 12. Iyer, Bhartrhari, pp. 90–93. As Iyer has observed, this parallel was noticed by . Helara ja, who quotes from Vya sa’s commentary on Yoga Sutra I:25 in this context. ¯¯ ¯ ¯ 13. Yoga Sutras, I:24, t¯ka. ¯ .i ¯ 14. For the Yoga Sutras, all experience of self-consciousness or thinking, this metaphysi¯ cal assumption of wrong identification between purus a and prakrti is held to obtain. Since our . . concern in this chapter is with the psychology of thinking and not the ultimate nature of the metaphysics involved, the discussion proceeds as if the sattva aspect of prakrti were indeed real . consciousness of illumination. This is in accord with the Yoga view of the nature of psychological processes at the thinking level. The sattva aspect of the thinking substance (citta), insofar as it is absolutely clear, takes on or reflects the intelligence (caitanya) of purus a. For practical pur¯ . poses, therefore, no duality appears, and prakrti may be treated as self-illuminating (see t¯ka . .i ¯ [explanation] on Yoga Sutra I:17). ¯ 15. S. N. Dasgupta finds that both the Yoga Sutras and the Vakyapadi adopt a kind of ¯ ¯ ¯ya commonsense identification or ontological unity between the whole (the universal) and the parts (the particular manifestations). The three gun as are the one universal genus, and it is the . gun as in various collocations that show themselves as the particular manifestations. Yoga Phi. losophy. Calcutta: University of Calcutta, 1930, pp. 120–26.
16. Yoga Sutras, III:9. ¯ 17. Ibid., I:5. 18. Ibid., I:12. 19. Ibid., II:4–6. 20. Ibid., I:18, t¯ka. .i ¯ 21. Vakyapadi vr tti on I:51. ¯ ¯ya, . 22. Ibid., vr tti on I:1. . 23. Yoga Sutras, II:19, bhas ya. Although for our present purpose, the inherent knowledge ¯ ¯. aspect of the buddhittattva is the point of focus, it should be realized that the buddhittattva, as . ¯ the collective of all the individual minds (buddhi) with their beginningless samskaras of ignorance (avidya ) from previous births, also contains within it the inherent avidya of the individual ¯ ¯ souls. And from the viewpoint of language, this avidya would be composed of all the residual ¯ traces of the use of words in previous lives (s abdabhavana ). See also Iyer, Bhartrhari, p. 91. ´ ¯ ¯ . 24. S. N. Dasgupta, The Study of Patañjali. Calcutta: University of Calcutta, 1920, p. 53. 25. Iyer, Bhartrhari, p. 149. . 26. S. N. Dasgupta, A History of Indian Philosophy. Cambridge: The University Press, 1932, vol. I, p. 250. 27. Dasgupta, Yoga Philosophy, p. 209. 28. Yoga Sutras, III:41. ¯ 29. Vakyapadi II:117–18 and I:122. ¯ ¯ya, 30. Ibid., I:46–47 and I:142. 31. Ibid., I:84, vrtti. . 32. Yoga Sutras, bhas ya on III:17. J. H. Woods translation. ¯ ¯. 33. Ibid., III:41, t¯ka. .i ¯ 34. Ibid., III:17, t¯ka. See also Vakyapadi I:84. ¯ ¯ya .i ¯ 35. Ibid., III:17, bhas ya. ¯. 36. Iyer, Bhartrhari, pp. 205–07 and 372. Bhartrhari shows this superimposition to hold . . at all levels of linguistic complexity and offers the example of the appearance of the whole meaning in each part of the dvandva compound. 37. Yoga Sutras, III:17, bhas ya. ¯ ¯. 38. Ibid., t¯ka. .i ¯ 39. Ibid., bhas ya. ¯. 40. Vakyapadi II:73. ¯ ¯ya, 41. Ibid., I:142, vrtti. . 42. Yoga Sutras I:44. ¯ 43. Vakyapadi I:153–55. ¯ ¯ya, 44. Ibid., I:131, vrtti. It should be noted that while this interpretation is based on Yoga . Sutras I:12–16, only one aspect of Yoga vaira gya is represented: the turning away of the mind ¯ ¯ from all forms of worldly attachment. For Patañjali’s Yoga at its ultimate level, vairagya also ¯ involves the turning away of the mind from all forms of vak so that the “seeded” or samprajñata ¯ ¯ samadhi gives way to a “nonseeded” or “nonword” asamprajñata state. (See Yoga Sutras I:50–51 ¯ ¯ ¯ and II:15 ff.). For Bhartrhari, since consciousness is shot through with vak, samadhi in its high¯ ¯ . est elevations will always be “seeded” with Vedic word (see Vakyapadi I:123). ¯ ¯ya 45. Vakyapadi II:28, bhas ya. ¯ ¯ya ¯. 46. Ibid., II:30, bhas ya. ¯. 47. See Jacob Needleman, The New Religions. Richmond Hill: Simon and Schuster, 1972; William McNamara, The Human Adventure: Contemplation for Everyman. New York: Doubleday, 1974; and Matthew Fox, Breakthrough: Meister Eckhart’s Creation Spirituality in New Translation. New York: Doubleday, 1991.
48. Vakyapadi I:14. ¯ ¯ya, 49. Yoga Sutras, II:49–52. ¯ 50. Ibid., II:47, bhas ya and t¯ka, and II:48. ¯. .i ¯ 51. Ibid., II:50–53. 52. As quoted in Eliade, Yoga: Immortality and Freedom, pp. 55–56. 53. Vakyapadi I:131, vrtti. ¯ ¯ya, . 54. Yoga Sutras, III:4. ¯ 55. Dasgupta, Yoga Philosophy, p. 335. . 56. Yoga-Sara-Sangraha of Vijñana Bhiks u, translated by Ganganatha Jha. Madras: Theo¯ . sophical Publishing House, 1932, p. 88. 57. Yoga Sutras, III:2. ¯ 58. Ibid., III:3, bhas ya. ¯. 59. Ibid., III:5. 60. Ibid., I:42–44. 61. Ibid., I:43, t¯ka. .i ¯ 62. Ibid., I:44, bhas ya. ¯. 63. Vakyapadi II:152. ¯ ¯ya, 64. Iyer, Bhartrhari, p. 90. . CHAPTER FOUR YOGA IN THE ´ ¯ VA I R A G Y A - S ATA K A O F B H A R T R H A R I . 1. “Ni tis ataka,” sloka 2, translated by B. S. Miller in Bhartrhari: Poems. New York: Co¯ ´ . lumbia University Press, 1967. ´ 2. M. R. Kale, The Ni and Vairagya S atakas of Bhartrhari. Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass, ¯ti ¯ . 1902. 3. D. D. Kosambi, “The Epigrams Attributed to Bhartrhari,” Singhi Jain Series, 23, . 1948, and “On the Authorship of the Satakatrayi ,” Journal of Oriental Research, 15 Madras, ¯ 1946, pp. 64–77. 4. See K. A. S. Iyer’s careful discussion of this problem in his Bhartrhari, pp. 10–12. Al. ´ though Iyer agrees with Kosambi that we cannot definitely know who the author of the S atakas was, Iyer finds no evidence that contradicts the traditional identification of Bhartrhari the poet . with Bhartrhari the grammarian. . 5. Wm. Theodore de Bary, foreword to Miller, Bhartr hari: Poems. . 6. Miller, Bhartr hari: Poems, introduction, p. xxvii. . 7. Patañjali’s Yoga Sutras, II:3–9 with Vyasa’s bhas ya and Vacaspati Mis ra’s t¯ka. ¯ ¯ ¯. ¯ ´ .i ¯ 8. Ibid., II:4. 9. Ibid., II:5. ´ 10. References to the Vairagya-S ataka are to the sloka numbering in the Advaita Ashrama ¯ edition, Calcutta, 1963. The translations are by B. S. Miller unless otherwise noted. 11. Yoga Sutras II:6. ¯ 12. Ibid., II:7. ´ 13. Vairagya-S ataka, Advaita Ashrama commentary on sloka 17, p. 11. ¯ 14. Yoga Sutras II:8. ¯ 15. W. B. Yeats, “Sailing to Byzantium,” in A Little Treasury of Modern Poetry, edited by Oscar Williams. New York: Scribner’s, 1952, p. 69. ´ 16. Vaira gya-S ataka, sloka 9, p. 6. ¯ 17. Yoga Sutras II:9. ¯
see. 37. 44. Bonaparte. G.. II:30. ´ Vaira gya-S ataka.. “Project for a Scientific Psychology. and life-time. 34. etc. ´ Vaira gya-S ataka. 38. II:28. The views of Carl Jung with regard to memory. ¯ Yoga Sutras II:34. and individuation or symbol formation. 12–14 & IV. p.. ¯ Yoga Sutras II:32.]. archetypes. sloka 82. 7–9. II:32. ¯ ¯ ¯ ¯´ 2. 49. 28. 22. p. M. 35. See especially Jung’s notions of the Collective Unconscious. see The Psychology of C. A N D YO G A O N M E M O RY 1. Ibid. 1963. bhas ya. Patañjaliyogadarsanam.. p. ¯ Yoga Sutras II:32. as the fruit. 9. A basic work of Sigmund Freud. 32. NOTES Ibid. p. II:46. 4. Yoga Sutras III:4. is found in his seminal but little-known work. 24. sati mule tadvipako ja tya yyurbhogah (Sutra II. ¯ Ibid. ¯ Those [life-states. 14) ¯ ¯ ¯. I:15. 13) ¯ ¯ ¯ ¯ ¯. 20. ¯s . ¯. motivation and the unconscious are found scattered throughout his Collected Works published by Princeton University Press. bhas ya. Jung by Jolande Jacobi.. 3. Varanasi: Bha rataya Vidya Prakas ana. A. ¯ It ripens into life-states.. II:35. 19. 37. Freud.). Kris (eds. ´ Vaira gya-S ataka. 48. sloka 77. 12) ´ ¯ . 30.. Ibid. 33. 1973. 25. ¯ . ¯ ¯ te hladaparitapaphalah pun yapun yahetuvat (Sutra II. 1954.. I:44. with reference to memory and motivation. 26. II:29. ¯ ¯. life-experiences. and E. CT: Yale University Press. because they are produced from virtuous or non-virtuous causes. Ibid. sloka 63.” in The Origins of Psychoanalysis. . if the root exists. Ibid. ¯ Ibid. II... ¯ ´ Vaira gya-S ataka. Ltd. . slokas 89. ´ Vaira gya-S ataka. Ibid. are pleasant or unpleasant. Ibid. For a reliable concise presentation of Jung’s thought. ¯.. ¯ Ibid. sloka 14. 23. ¯ Yoga Sutras II:32. Yoga Sutras. 36. 21. bhas ya. I:12. 347–445. CHAPTER FIVE F R E U D .. e. J U N G ..98 18. ¯ ¯. pp. 27. ¯. Ibid. 39. slokas 83 and 84. Ibid. Co. 31. bhas ya on III:3. 29. sloka 85. New Haven. The following is a summary of karma as found in ¯ these passages of the Yoga Sutras: ¯ Karma has its origin in afflictions kles amulah karma´ayah (Sutra II. 95 and 100. London: Imago Pub. bhas ya. p.g.
395–432. New Haven. 1970. karma is equal to vasana. ¯ .” published for the first time in Brain and Behaviour 4. . p. Kris (eds. 9. for [all] others. New York: AppletonCentury-Crofts. . H. skara a´aya ity arthah/ . . lbid. In Yoga Sutra. Sigmund Freud. . . Commentary on Sutra IV. smr ti is equal to samskara. ¯ ¯ (Note: here. p. M. Connecticut: Yale University Press. pp. NY: Kennikat Press. samskara is equated to smr ti. Port Washington.” because unlike Sutra II. ¯ . pp. . 15. and habituation are painful and (the life-states. 1954. 11. 1955. Bonaparte.. 1969. . 7) ¯ ¯ . karmasuklakr s nam yoginas trividham itares am (Sutra IV. places.NOTES 99 To those who understand. 702. tatas tadvipakanugun anam ekab-hivyaktir vasananam (Sutra IV. 10. London: Springer International. . Edwin G. 9) ¯ ´ ¯ ¯ ¯ ¯ ¯ ¯ ¯ ¯ . . London: Imago Pub. . ¯ . John C. .” in The Origins of Psychoanalysis. . Kawamura in interpreting these passages. .¯ ¯ [The process of impression] continues uninterruptedly. . p. . etc.. 15) ¯ ¯ . “Project for a Scientific Psychology. Yoga as Philosophy and Religion. Surendranath Dasgupta. 9 states: kutas ca smr tisam skarayor ekarupatvat/yathanubhava s tatha ¯ ´ ¯ ¯ ¯ ¯ ¯ ¯ . Boring. Ibid. 7–17. In Yoga Sutra. . 377. ¯ ¯ ¯ parinamatapasamskaraduhkhair gunavrttivirodhac ca duhkham eva sarvam vivekinah (Sutra II. according to this: smr ti—sam skara—smr ti. and time. Gordon W. S. L. 1950. 5. 566. 12. Co. . ¯¯ amska ra h te ca karmava sana rupa h/yatha ca va sana s tatha smr tir iti/ja tides aka lavyavahitebhyah ¯ ¯ ¯ ¯ ¯ ¯ ¯ ¯ .. . A. Freud. all [of those] is indeed pain. ¯ of bringing about their fruition. and E. sam skara is better translated “memory traces. 400. . Popper and John C./vasanah sam ¯ ¯ ¯ s ¯ ¯s ´¯ ´¯ ¯ ¯ .). because change. A History of Experimental Psychology. pp. 1977. 177. . . ¯ .) obstruct the operations of virtuous qualities.) . Becoming. 13. the continuation of which is supported by karma ¯ . ¯ ´ ¯ . because memory and memory traces are of one substance. . “Conscious Memory: The Cerebral Processes Concerned in Storage and Retrieval. . . . 6. I acknowledge the assistance of my colleague Dr. Penguin Books. . . anxiety. K. 8.¯ . K. “The Foundation of Psychoanalytic Theory: Freud’s Neuropsychological Model. 347–445. by Karl R. it is threefold. Pribram. . H. Eccles. karma´ayavr ttilabhavas aves ad abhivayajyante/. 7. Pribram. ´ .” p.). Therefore. Pribram (ed. ¯ ¯ ¯ (karmabhivyañjakam) and vasana functions as the support for samskara (memory ¯ traces) which produce smr ti (memory). 2nd ed.. ¯ ¯ samska rebhyah smr tih smr tis ca punah samska ra ity evam ete smr tisam ska ra h ¯ ¯. Allport. .¯ From the [threefold karma] there come the impressions (vasana ) of only those which are capable ¯ ¯ . 8) ¯ ¯ ¯ ¯ ¯ ¯ ¯ . “Foundation of Psychoanalytic Theory. jatides akalavyavahitanam apy anantaryam smr tisam skarayor ekarupatvat (Sutra IV. ¯ A Yogin’s karma is neither white nor black. Eccles. even though there is a time lapse between births.” in The Self and Its Brain. R.
86. G. 518–19. Dreams. 517. G. CT: Yale University Press. p. C. G. The Psychology of C. par. “Towards a Neurobiological Theory of Consciousness” in The Nature of Consciousness Ned Block. 31. vol. Ibid.). Hall. p. 39.” in The Nature of Consciousness. G. p. Jung.. Ibid. Sigmund Freud. 35. vol. New York: Vintage Books. On the Nature of the Psyche. 263–64. Cambridge. p. Zürich (E. p. Reflections.. ¯ 42. Jung’s lectures IV. 11. 11. 390. “Jung’s Encounter with Yoga. pp. 339–57. C.). Freud’s theory as summarized by K. Craik (eds. 4. Jolande Jacobi. Op. 8. “Contrastive Phenomenology. ¯ 27. Op. 226n. Memories. Pribram.” p.). C. Yoga Sutras I. Owen Flanagan and Gwen Guzeldere (eds. 34. 3–18. Canada: Wilfrid Laurier University Press. p. Yoga Sutra II:15. Coward. 26. also shows that this thinking is still very current. and VI. p.). no. 170–99 and especially p. p. 401. Ibid. pp. 188–89. 11.. From Oct. G. An article by Bernard Baars reviews recent research suggesting that conscious experience involves a selective choice and constructive act of memory and perception inputs. op. G. G. 23. For a detailed analysis of the influence of Yoga on Jungian psychology. Oxford: Oxford University Press.. ¯ 29. Jung. G. ¯ 28. 43. 21. “Unconscious Motivation in Everyday Life. Ibid. T. “Foundations of Psychoanalytic Theory. Aniela Jaffe (ed. 34. 17. p. H. Jung: Letters. C. C. 35–36. 27. pp.” in Studies in Motivation. Waterloo. 8. Jung. ¯ 41. G.). 11.. New York: Mentor Books. David C. Eido Roshi. H. Unpublished notes show that during the summer of 1939. 33. 24. “Conscious Memory. Collected Works.. Collected Works. Ontario. Lectures. Jung. 1958. A Primer of Freudian Psychology. Yoga Sutras I. Ibid.: M. 27–29. Mass. “Zen Mystical Practice. Yoga Sutras IV. ¯ 18. 16. 1976. C. 24. p. 9 and IV. 1997. See also Jung’s Collected Works. p. The recent Oxford Handbook of Memory E. 36. 197. 222. 15. Pribram. Collected Works. New Haven. Jaffe (eds.” op.” pp. 284–85. p. K. 16. pp. New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts.I.. cit. 51 and III. p. 22. 28 and 29. In this note Adler is quoting from Jung’s “A Psychological Approach to the Dogma of the Trinity. pp. pp. cit. .” The Journal of Analytical Psychology 23. 1965.” Collected Works. 5 and II. 20. The Structure and Dynamics of the Psyche. G. See pp. 1938 to June 1939. I. 25. 1973. Tulving and F. 5. 2000. see H. Jung. 349. dealt in detail with Patañjali’s Yoga Sutras. Calvin S. On the Tibetan Book of the Dead. 1973. C. McClelland (ed. London: Routledge and Kegan Paul. pp. I.. T. E. 30–33.). 37.. “Foundations of Psychoanalytic Theory. 400–401. V. Jung. Jung: Letters. 25. 1955. vol. cit. 40. 38. 1978. Harold Coward and Terence Penelhum (eds.. 32. Yoga Sutras III. cit. 1977. 4.100 NOTES 14.. Frances Crick and Christof Koch. pp. 385. pp. Jung lectured on “The Process of Individuation” at the Eidgenössische Technische Hochschule.T. 19. 383. Lectures). 517. Press. Adler and A. 30.” in Mystics and Scholars: The Calgary Conference on Mysticism.
pp. op. “The Process of Individuation: Notes on Lectures given at the Eidgenössische Technische Hochschule. III:34–35. 200–23. Ibid.. 2.” in Cognitive Views of Human Motivation. 19. Jung’s Psychology. Jung. Gilbert Ryle. 1974. New York: Mentor. G. 1958. Ibid.¯ ¯ . W. 13. October 1938–June 1939. G.. W. 6. “On the Nature of the Psyche. cit.’” Spring. Collected Works. . Princeton: Princeton University Press. 193. G. pp. 14. Ibid. “Prefatory Remarks to Jung’s ‘Reply to Buber. See also F. 1–20. 5. pp. Spiritualism and the Foundations of C. CHAPTER SIX W H E R E J U N G D R AW S T H E L I N E I N H I S A C C E P TA N C E O F P ATA Ñ J A L I ’ S Y O G A 1. as well as current discussions of memory and consciousness in the authoritative collections of recent research. 12.. Vol. “The Structure and Dynamics of the Psyche. C. Grammarian. See also C. op. Vol. Mi mamsaka. p. G. I. W. II. Buddhist. “The Holy Men of India. 17. Yoga Sutras.” C. 1973.. cit. Ibid. Jung’s Quest for Wholeness. I. Vol. cit. 264. Nyaya¯ ¯ Vais esika. p. p. W. pp. Aniela Jaffé (ed. II. C. 438.). Albany: State University of New York Press. only the materialist Carvaka. and The Oxford Handbook of Memory (2000). Jung: Letters. 580. and the Vis istadvaita Vedanta reject the two-level theory of perception and accept ¯ ¯ ´ . C. 4. Lectures recorded by Barbara Hannah. p. Within Western psychology. G. Advaita Vedanta. Dreams. 9.. Bolles. 301–11.” C. 3. X. Bernard Weiner (ed. 1974. 308. G. C. C. Memories. C. “Cognition and Motivation: Some Historical Trends. See the review article by R. the ¯ ¯ . cit. Jung. 20. G. 10. Ibid. Reflections. ¯ . 1993. See Jung’s biography. H. See Edward Whitmont. Of the schools of Indian philosophy. 390. 11. Albany: State University of New York Press. 42. p. G. 505 (hereafter referred to as C. p. W. Jung: Letters.). only ordinary sense perception as a valid source of knowledge. The Concept of Mind.. G. Indian Psychology: Cognition. Jadunath Sinha. Reflections. Jung is criticized as falling into the same trap of neglecting the body and the psycho-physiological reality in his psychology.). Jung. 14. 8. 1969. Unpublished manuscript. “On the Secret of the Golden Flower.NOTES 101 44. Smith. pp.). 334.” C. Zürich by Prof. p. 262–64. op.. 1963. C. Memories. 1958. pp. Jung. C. p. Princeton: Princeton University Press. 1990. New York: Academic Press. The Sankhya-Yoga. Jung. op. See Curtis D. Here Jung seems to echo William James’s notion of a flimsy threshold separating the differing energy levels of the conscious and the unconscious. cit. pp. 11. New York: Penguin. pp. See James’s Varieties of Religious Experience. New York: Vintage Books. and Jaina schools all accept supersensuous ´ . 8. ¯ 21. Dreams. 171–73. 261–64. 307. 1–10. Calcutta: Sinha Publishing House.. Ibid. op. p. Gerhard Adler (ed. Jung. 8. C.” C. Charet. 15. 1965.” E. Ibid. G. Jung: Letters. 18. 16. 7. Vol. The Nature of Consciousness (1997). p. T. 234–35. 13.
” in “The Practice of Psychotherapy. p. 22. 141. Jung. p. London: Macmillan. p. G. 5. Jung. Waterloo: Wilfrid Laurier University Press. I:44.” C.” C. pt. 7. 1961. Rudolf Otto. “On the Tibetan Book of the Great Liberation. 8.. Jung. 505. cit. 8. C.. p. G. Ibid. cit. 536. p. I. 28. op. p. op.. 6.. ¯ 23. W. III:32. cit. p. cit.” in “The Archetypes and the Collective Unconscious. 4. op. “The Doctrine of Pratibha in Indian Philosophy.” op. 275f. pp. W.. p. p.. 140–41. T.” C. 47. Religion and Philosophy. W. Vol. Lectures. New York: Oxford University Press 1963.). Dublin: Gill and Macmillan. 33. “The Doctrine of Pratibha in Indian Philosophy.” op. I:43. p.” C. 25. “Conscious.1. I. G. 389–90. 175. G. W. Ibid. . 274. “On the Secret of the Golden Flower. pp. G. 16. p. 504. 37. Ibid. 1964. T. 9. p. 26. cit. pp. See also “The Psychology of Transference. H. 9. 551–57. 550. W. vol. 24. New York: Paulist Press. op. II. ¯ 41. Jung. C. pp. pp. William James.” C. op. ¯ 43. Individuation and the Absolute. ¯ 42. “Mysticism: Its Meaning and Varieties. 39. p. p. See also Sean Kelly. 29. 1976. 12. Jung: Letters. 46. 32–33. pp. op. 36.. Indian Psychology: Cognition.” C. Jung. The Idea of the Holy.. 28. p. 223.” C... G. 1924. 90. 13–18. “The Structure and Dynamics of the Psyche. p. 35.” C. I:48. Ibid. cit. and Individuation. 1–18. pp. Dreams. New York: Van Nostrand. Ibid. Vol. op. 3. see Gopinath Kaviraj.. 11. cit. Memories. Jung. Walter H. Reflections. p.. pt. W. 58ff. p. E. The Psychology of C. 15. The Varieties of Religious Experience. I. C. Yoga Sutras. 9. 11. 38. para. 136. For an excellent account ¯ of these various views of pratibha. 8. Principe. 74. 48. Ibid. 1993. 32. G. I. “The Doctrine of Pratibha in Indian ¯ ¯ Philosophy. C. “Two Essays on Analytical Psychology. Copleston. para. Stace. “The Archetypes and the Collective Unconscious. C. Mysticism and Philosophy. G. 113. 113–32. 2. 34. 30.. cit. “The Structure and Dynamics of the Psyche. 339.. W. C. 2. p. The Psychology of C.” in Mystics and Scholars. 393.102 NOTES perceptions (pratibha ). W. New York: Mentor 1958. op. cit. Frederick C. op. 27. Jung. although they give different accounts of them. Richard Evans. p. W. W. 31. Foreword to “Introduction to Zen Buddhism.. C. 1974. 226. Yoga Sutras. G. 45.. cit. pp. 13. 44.” C. 40.” Annals of the Bhandarkar Oriental Research Institute. p. C. Unconscious. 282. CHAPTER SEVEN MYSTICISM IN J U N G A N D P ATA Ñ J A L I ’ S Y O G A 1. Harold Coward and Terence Penelhum (eds. Conversations with Carl Jung.. Ibid. Jung: Letters. G. Jung: Letters. cit.
581. Pt. 1997. 336. “Taoism and Jung: Synchronicity and the Self.” C. C. G. 32.T. C. Jung. 27. especially sutras ¯ ¯ 1:41–51. 11:574–75. 253. Another image which Jung sometimes used in the same way as the mandala was that . G. op. University of Basel. W. with the Commentary (Bhasya) by Vyasa and the Gloss (Tika) by Vacaspati Mis ra. 1:357. 337. The best English trans¯ ¯¯ ¯ ¯´ lation is by Rama Prasada.. W. Jung. C. C. Katz (ed. G. W. “Psychology and Religion. and Gwen Guzeldere (eds. 75. 13. For more on Jung’s understanding of synchronicity in religious experience. 8. 5. unpublished Eidgenössische Technische Hochschule Lectures.” C. C. Varanasi: Bharati ya Vidhya Prakas ana. Oxford: Oxford University Press. BBC Interview of C.. ¯ ¯ ¯ ´ Patañjali-Yogadarsanam. 7. cit. 17. “Concerning Mandala Symbolism. Ibid. “Commentary on The Secret of the Golden Flower. Reflections. 33. 24. 31. 338. 11. Ibid. C. 28.. p. The Teachings of the Mystics (New York: Mentor. thus opening the way for new dialogue with both Jung and Yoga. 1955. Vol. Jung. 11:576–86. G. 25. W. then the tree would represent a profile view of it: the self depicted as a process of growth. The following section is an interpretation of Patañjali’s Yoga Sutras. 46. Ned Block. Albany: State University of New York Press. Zurich (E. C. 18. C. 11:23ff. T. Memories.” C. W. Professor of Botany. p. G. 1990. 19. Lectures). op. Ibid. 14. 122–23. of the tree. 30. 21. see Harold Coward. . 9. Memories. Reflections.” C. op. 14–15. p. It is of interest to note in passing that after some decades of neglect. 11:79–80. 26. Mysticism and Religious Traditions. “The Psychology of Eastern Meditation. Stace. 1983. G. Owen Flanagan. In it Jung says. Jung. New York: Vintage. C. Absolute is the term adopted by Evelyn Underhill in her Mysticism. Jung. 1963. G.I. cit. Reflections.). pp. W. Jung by Laurens van der Post. 11:584. The Varieties of Religious Experience. modern Western psychology in the 1990s returned to a serious examination of consciousness as perhaps the most foundational concept to be understood. Ibid. Dreams.. “If a mandala may be described as a symbol of the self seen in cross section. H. 1960). cit. W.. Religion and Philosophy. 13:26–28. Jung. See The Nature of Consciousness.. pp.. G. Press. op. Jung’s Psychology of Religion and Synchronicity. Spiritual presence is Arnold Toynbee’s term which Walter Stace adopted in his Mysticism and Philosophy.). 1924. 1996. T. p.” C. cit. “The Holy Men of India. Jung. for an analysis of how this “Absolute” has been experienced by mystics of various religious traditions. Jung. p. “The Philosophical Tree.” C. “The Story of Carl Gustav Jung—Mystery that Heals. 1972.NOTES 103 7. 123. New York: Meridan. 13. XII. See also Robert Aziz.. This is especially seen in his 1945 Festschrift article. pp. 477–96. “Psychology and Religion. Allahabad: Bhuvaneswari Asrama. G. 338. Cambridge: M. W.” BBC-TV. “The Process of Individuation in the Exercitia spiritulia of St. pp. Jung. Ibid.” June 1939–March 1940. 20. 1965. 10. p. p. See also Steven T. 29. op. p.. p. G. p. Cp.” Philosophy East and West. G. The Idea of the Holy. 23. 15. “The Holy Men of India” in C. 12. Memories. cit.” written in honor of Gustav Senn. Ignatius of Loyola. 385–86. C. 9.” C.. W. Dreams. 22. Dreams. 16.
. 34. See San khya Karika of I ´vara Krishna, Trans. by J. Davies. Calcutta: Susil Gupta, ¯ ¯ ¯ ¯s 1947. 35. Yoga Sutra 11:18, bha. ya. ¯ ¯s 36. See Gopinath Kaviraj, “The Doctrine of Pratibha in Indian Philosophy,” Annals of the ¯ Bhandarkar Oriental Research Institute (1924):1–18 and 113–32. 37. Yoga Sutra 1:41. ¯ 38. Ibid., bha. ya. ¯s 39. This is the “seedless” or “objectless” samadhi described by Patañjali in Yoga Sutra 1:51. ¯ ¯ 40. Yoga Sutra 1:42, bhasya. ¯ ¯ 41. Ibid. 42. Ibid., tika. . ¯ 43. Yoga Sutra 1:43, bhasya. ¯ ¯ 44. Amos 6:1–14. 45. John 4:1–26. 46. Yoga Sutra 1:43, .ika. See also Christopher Chapple, “The Unseen Seer and the Field: ¯ t ¯ Consciousness in Samkhya and Yoga,” in The Problem of Pure Consciousness: Mysticism and Philosophy, Robert K. C. Forman (ed.). Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1990, pp. 66–69. 47. Yoga Sutra 1:51, bhasya. ¯ ¯ 48. Chapter III:45 of the Yoga Sutras gives a complete list of the psychic powers and how ¯ to attain them. See Ian Whicher, The Integrity of the Yoga Dars ana. Albany: State University of ´ New York Press, 1998, p. 112, for a description and discussion of the siddhis.
CHAPTER EIGHT T H E L I M I T S O F H U M A N N AT U R E I N YOGA AND TRANSPERSONAL PSYCHOLOGY 1. For a good overview of Western thought in this regard, see John Passmore, The Perfectibility of Man. New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons, 1970. 2. Jean Varenne, Yoga and the Hindu Tradition. Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass, 1989. 3. Mircea Eliade, Yoga: Immortality and Freedom. Translated from the French by Willard R. Trask. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1969, p. 363. 4. Andrew O. Fort and Patricia Y. Mumme (eds.), Living Liberation in Hindu Thought. Albany: State University of New York Press, 1996, p. 1. See also Andrew O. Fort (ed.) Ji ¯vanmukti in Transformation: Embodied Liberation in Advaita and Neo-Vedanta. Albany: State University of New York Press, 1998. See also the “Feature Review” of the Fort and Mumme volume by Arvind Sharma in Philosophy East and West, Vol. 48, 1998, pp. 142–61. 5. Living Liberation in Hindu Thought, op. cit., p. 1. 6. Ji ¯van-Mukti-Viveka of Swami Vid aran ya, Trans. by Swami Moksadananda. Calcutta: ¯ . Advaita Ashrama, 1996. 7. Patricia Y. Mumme, “Living Liberation in a Comparative Perspective,” in Living Liberation in Hindu Thought, op. cit., p. 247. 8. See Andrew O. Fort, Ji ¯vanmukti in Transformation. Albany: State University of New York Press, 1998. 9. See chapter 10, “A Liberated Being Being Liberated: The Case of Ramana Maharshi,” Ji ¯vanmukti in Transformation, op. cit., pp. 134–51. 10. Yoga Sutra II:2, Bha.ya. ¯ ¯s 11. Christopher Key Chapple, “Living Liberation in Samkhya and Yoga,” in Living Lib¯. eration in Hindu Thought, op. cit., p. 124.
12. Yoga Sutras I:42–44. ¯ 13. Andrew O. Fort, The Self and Its States. Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass, 1990, p. 116. 14. Michael Washburn, The Ego and the Dynamic Ground. Albany: State University of New York Press, 1988. 15. Ibid., p. v. 16. Ibid., p. 20. 17. Alan Roland, In Search of Self in India and Japan: Toward a Cross-Cultural Psychology. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1988. 18. Ibid., p. 10. 19. Charles Tart (ed.), Transpersonal Psychologies. New York: Harper Colophon, 1975. 20. Ibid., p. 2. 21. Robert Ornstein (ed.), The Nature of Human Consciousness: A Book of Readings. San Francisco: W. H. Freeman, 1973, p. xi. 22. In Tart, op. cit., p. 244. 23. Ibid., p. 262. 24. John Hick, The Fifth Dimension: An Exploration of the Spiritual Realm. Oxford: Oneworld, 1999, p. 141. Hick does allow, following Kant’s lead, that human individuality, having served its purpose, may one day be transcended, but that such a final state must be “far beyond this life.” (p. 136) This claim imposes a Western Christian Kantian presupposition as to what is possible for human nature and is the basis for Hick’s epistemological conclusion that claims of literal unity, such as Yoga makes of experience in this life, must be “metaphorical” rather than “literal.” Hick’s conclusions may be right if the presuppositions upon which he bases them happen to be right. But we currently have no philosophical helicopter that will take us to a no-presupposition place from which we can evenhandedly judge between the very different presuppositions of, say, Kant and Patañjali so as to determine that one had it right and the other had it wrong, or both, or neither. Thus my counsel for a critical openmindedness to the study of all claims as to the possibilities of human nature. 25. Yoga Sutras, op. cit., IV:25, Tika of Vachaspati Mishra, as translated by J. H. Woods, ¯ . in The Yoga System of Patañjali. Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass, 1966, p. 338.
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object. avidya . ¯ asmita . ¯ a gama. smrti. .. free from ignorance. the inner meaning of a word. Word-meaning as distinct from word-sound. ¯. ¯ AUM. ¯ functions. anuma na. . all knowledge of the Divine. Superimposition.glossary of sanskrit terms abhinives a. Absence of avarice. and manas . ´ abhya sa. ¯ asteya. ¯ aklis t a. Nonviolence in thought and deed. The internal mental organ composed of the buddhi. aham ka ra. Used to indicate that Vedic scripture is authorless. bi Seed or seed state. ¯ aparigraha. Habitual steadying of the mind in Yogic concentration. Egoity. brahmacarya. Scriptural truth. a tman. antah karan a. . eternal. Nonstealing. reveals knowledge of ¯ reality. guarded from error. and therefore safe. Commentary. the epics and Puranas. aham ¯ ahim sa . ¯ s ¯. pure. The sacred syllable of Hinduism that symbolizes and evokes all levels of consciousness. . including ´ruti. Self or soul. lotus position. a sana. Yogic posture for the purpose of immobilizing the body. 107 . Inference. e. .g. ka ra. . The obscuring veil of human ignorance that. artha. Clinging to life. ¯ adhya sa. ¯ja. Ego.. bha s ya. apaurus eya. when removed. Unafflicted. Celibacy in thought and action.
including both the level of awareness and the level of unconsciousness. citta vrtti. . A concise verse requiring an interpretative commentary for its understanding. The Sankhya term for release. the uninterrupted flow of fixed concen¯ . “That thou art. jña na. and universal to be spoken. or object. . The great criterion sentences of the Upanisads. e. intense. . ¯s I´vara. A characteristic or quality. An energy (within the word) that seeks to burst forth into expression. Yogic concentration lasting several dhnrans. . The trace or seed left behind by each thought or action that predisposes one to a similar thought or action in the future. buddhi. the purusa fully revealed in its isolated splendor. ¯ ¯ karma.. kratu. doing one’s dharma produces spiritual merit. madhyama va k. also may mean truth. A particular mental state. the use of poetic or dramatic words to suggest or evoke a feeling that is too deep. philosophical school. The physical sound or the uttered syllables of a word.¯ dharma. buddhitattva.. kles as. ´ dha ran a . I´ ¯´varapranidhana. The level of consciousness characterized by intelligent discrimination. dhya na. . One’s religious and moral duty in life. intellect. Disgust. usually refers to the three gun as of consciousness: sattva. gun a. or sphot a. sis. Constantly changing painful states of consciousness. The Absolute. individual being. the divine guru of the ancient . . Spiritual teacher. dars ana. Language as thought that has not yet been uttered. ka rika . . . tration upon an artha. Pure collective or universal consciousness containing within it all intellects of individuals. rajas. Short Yogic concentration with momentary loss of subject-object duality. the Divine. Offering up of all action and thought to the Lord (Is vara). in its transcendental essence that makes up the pure consciousness of ¯s vara. and tamas.g. dvesa. Consciousness. citta. True. ¯ . dhvani. guru. kaivalya. Viewpoint. In the Yoga view. sometimes characterized as pure consciousness.108 G L O S S A RY Brahman. ´ klista.” ¯ ¯ . dhvani. . ¯´ Is ji ¯va. In Indian aesthetics. Afflicted by ignorance. the drive to diversity within the unitary whole. the Divine Word of the scripture r. ¯ . The empirical self. unobscured knowledge of the word or object. ¯ ¯ maha va kyas.
pas yanti va k. moksa. rather than as they ap¯ pear to us. it is ¯ ´ with the prama n a of ´abda that Bhartrhari is most concerned. and causality and has the capacity to directly “grasp” the real nature of things. Level of intuitive or flashlike understanding of the sentence meaning as a whole. the instrumental cause of speech at the lower levels of language. argues for the authorlessness ¯ma . Immediate supersensuous intuition. niyamas. space. Nonintelligent matter. Regulation of respiration. nirvica ra. ¯ and eternality of the letter sounds of the Vedas. one side of the San khya-Yoga metaphysical duality. sumption. . pre¯. mantra. . AUM. but freed from the confusion of memory and the conventional use of words. one side of the Sankhya-Yoga metaphysical duality. . Release. . State of release or enlightenment. rendering his consciousness transparent to the Divine Word. The mental organ that collects and coordinates information. ´ ¯ ¯ prajña . si. Positive Yogic practices for the purifying of body and mind. rasa. prakrti. Passion. ¯. dian philosophy. pran ava. space or causality are present. Breath. A verse of poetic scripture in praise of the Divine. A dominant mood evoked in the aesthetic experience of poetry and drama. The inner essence of the aesthetic experience that is beyond all conceptual expression. ¯. no notions of time. supernormal perception that transcends the or¯ dinary categories of time. Withdrawal of senses from worldly attachments.g. A pure form of sama dhi in which the meaning or object is fully revealed in its very ¯ ¯ essence. ¯ nirva n a. ¯. pratya ha ra. . Mi ¯ m sa . Direct intuitive knowledge of things as they are in themselves. One who has purged himself of all ignorance. the sacred “root” sound from which all language flows forth. One of the six orthodox schools of Indian philosophy. r. True cognition or knowing. An individual pure consciousness. nonapprehension (abha va). Ground or support in which the word-sound and word-meaning inhere. nirvitarka. s . Trance concentration upon the gross form of the object. ¯ ¯ pratyaya. six prama n as are often discussed: perception. ri Poetic style. The aspect of consciousness that is passion or energy. . as distinct from false knowing. rasadhvani. oneness with the Divine. pra n a.G L O S S A RY 109 manas. ¯ rajas. Physical sound. purusa. prama . ¯. inference. na da. freedom from the suffering and bondage of this world. A true or valid way of knowing. ¯. perception. An original seer or “speaker” of Hindu scripture. ra ga.¯ ¯ pratibha . ¯ prama n a. pra n a yama. although there is argument in In¯.. ¯ti. analogy. ¯ . e. and the revelatory power of speech (s abda).
s ´ S abdabrahman. A form of sama dhi in which little error is present. The aspect of consciousness that is dullness or inertia. color. s¯ sattva. ´ S abdatattva. the world of phenomena. continuous flow of pure consciousness as it would be in the mind of ¯´ the Lord (I s vara). Trance state of consciousness with no subject-object distinction. ¯ sattva samska ra. . satya . shape. Subtle primary elements. One of the six orthodox schools of Indian philosophy. ´a nta rasa. Brahman as the omniscient word-principle. argues for a dualism of mat¯. svarga. consciousness that is the one ultimate reality. Series. The aspect of consciousness that is brightness or intelligence. . The aesthetic experience of spiritual serenity. for Bhartrhari both the material and effi. The spiritual discipline of meditating upon the Divine Word. ter (prakrti) and individual souls (purusas).” not the final release or goal of Hinduism. space.110 G L O S S A RY ´abda. Rebirth in the suffering and bondage of this world. and object are ¯ indiscriminately mixed together. or release. the absolute rasa into which all other s¯ emotions subside. and smell. The highest spiritual goal of union with the Divine. sam tosa. sa dhana. Contentment. tamas. Concentrated scriptural study. “Seeded” or trance concentration upon an object. Truthfulness. inner counterparts to the gross sense experiences of ¯ sound. . ¯-Va ´abdapurvayoga. . “Heaven. or Daivi ¯ k. savitarka. . ¯ samsa ra. ¯ sama dhi. . A personal discipline or practice for spiritual self-realization. no distinction between word and meaning. tanma tras. The Absolute. leads to moksa. Sa n khya. s ¯ . ¯ samprajña ta sama dhi. ¯ savica ra. the Divine for Bhartrhari. the intertwined unity of word and . . Convention of language usage as maintained by the elders in this and previous generations. also called the Divine Word. especially of the Divine. sa yuja. . Indistinct Yogic concentration or sama dhi in which memory. Authoritative teaching. A memory trace that has the dynamic quality of a seed that is constantly ready to sprout. word. touch. cient cause of creation. the continual round of birthdeath-rebirth. but only the constant presence of meaning as a whole. but the place where the fruits of the spiritual merit one has achieved are enjoyed. including both meditation upon verses and chanting ¯ ¯ of AUM. as opposed to “un¯ ¯ seeded” or trance concentration without an object. san keta. the intensity of concentration pro¯ ¯ duces transparent sattva so that the true meaning or object (artha) stands revealed with only slight distortions of time. ¯ sva dha ya. . Word or words that when spoken convey knowledge. ´a stra. flavor. ¯ samska ra. and causality.
Bhartrhari are among the leaders of this school. and Atharva. ahimsa . . A commentary. . Yajur. idea. Yogic practices of self-restraint. or nonviolence. and Upanisads. ¯ ¯ vaira gya. Letter sounds. ¯ . ¯ va k. Turning away of the mind from all forms of worldly attachment. va gyoga. Gross or physical level of uttered speech. ¯ Aranyakas. Veda. the Brahmanas. Patañjali and ¯ . vrtti. ¯ . One of the six schools of orthodox Indian philosophy. va kya sphot a. The mixing or superimposing of two or more mental states so that knowledge is obscured and error produced. .¯ Yoga. hunger and thirst. composed of reinforced karmas. e. varn a. Language that is thought of as having various levels. va sana . Grammar. bearing with equanimity the pairs of opposites such as heat and cold. Sa ma. one of the traditional schools of Indian philosophy. ¯. One of the six orthodox schools of Indian philosophy. yamas. including the early hymns (Sam hita). The primary Hindu scriptures. . Yoga or concentration upon speech. monistic absolutism of Sankara. the Sam hita are organized into four collections called R g. ¯ vaikhari va k. yoga n ga. A habit pattern of thought and/or action. Psychic heat or energy generated from the practice of austerities. from the gross form of the spoken ¯ word to the subtle form of the highest intuition. Intuitive understanding or direct perception of the sentence meaning as a whole ¯ .G L O S S A RY 111 tapas. ¯ . . systematized by Patañjali. Vya karan a. ¯ ¯ Veda nta. describes a practical psychological discipline for achieving release. .. ¯ vikalpa. Steps or aids to the practice of Yoga. . often identified with the ¯ ´ .g.
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92 Buddhist thought. 56. 60. 83. 95 . 14. 39 dhvani. Francis. 38 ¯ Brahman. 95 ¯ Bhar thari. 59. 4. 31. 84 avidya. 87 Eliade. 24. 53. 75 consciousness. 77 Chapple. 56. 98 God. 82. 75. 16. 53. 91 Aurobindo. 42 dhyana. 29. 64. 85 agama (verbal communication). 75. Fredrick. 88 Christ. 84. 86. 2. 83. 76 Eccles. 17.index active imagination. 76. 75 God archetype. 25. 65. 86 Adler. 38. 64. 18. Mircea. 59. 11 asana. 14. 66. 82 Christianity. 59. 43. 57. 54. 82. 25. 3. 48 AUM. 2. ¯ 20. 86. 81 guru. 78. 48. 47 ¯ ¯ A tman. Sir John. 82 Buddha. Gerhard. 75. 16. 41. 30–35 on speaking. 68. 91 ego. 84. 24. 85. 2. 88 collective consciousness (buddhitattva). 55. S. 7. 27. 23 archetype. 77. 62. 95 dharana. 81. 85 Chaudhuri. 1. 67. 43. 74. 39. 44. 45. 28. 39. 26–30 ´ Vairagya-Sataka.. 60. 11ff. 32. 41–48 ¯ Vakyapadi 21–40 ¯ ¯ya. 57 Advaita Vedanta. Haridas. 58. Bhiksu. 38. 37. 33. 57. 78. Christopher. 23. 28. 39. 58. 58. as poet. 29. 29. 43.. 86. 29. 38. 54 Dasgupta. 16. 69. on hearing. 68. 41ff. 64 Fort. 101 Copleston. 6. 64. 36. 66. 91. 32. 19. 56. Andrew. 77. 20. 76. 92. 72 Crick. 83. 52. 86 Aristotle. Y. Vijña na. 53. 66. 30. 73. 28. 91 Freud. 48 ¯ dreams. 34. 74. 31. 73. 23. 16. 78. 91. 74. 39. 17. 77. 17. 77. 21. 39. 60. 20.¯ dharma. 28. W. 18. 27–28. 73–77. 92 113 . 32 collective unconscious. 34. 84. 68. 55. 84 Evans-Wentz. 57. 18. 27. 48 ¯ . Sri. 85 freedom of choice.. 81. 84. 59.
24. 42 Mi ma m sa . 77 ¯ pratyahara. 98 acceptance of Patañjali’s Yoga. 57. 91. 58 pleasure as pain in the making. 2. 66. 21. 38. 105 Hubbard. 84. 24. 39. 79. 35. 11. A. Barbara. 89. 67–69. 68. 36. D. 15.. 21. 83 Ornstein. John. 34. 14. 78 as active. 91.. 82. ¯ mind. 35 I-tsing. 22. 4.M. 81. 65–68. M. 11. 7. 37. Ramana. W. 85. 92 Manu. 54. 98–99 . 67 supersensuous. 74. pran a ya ma. 36. 4. 60. 90. 22 James. 91. 12 intuition. 91 motivation. 30. 7. 41 Kant. 84 jñana. 59. See vak ´ ¯ ¯ Patañjali. 23. 69. 36 meaning.. 39. 83–90. ¯ Karma-samsara. 34. 37. 56–60 and memory. 51. 67 Miller.. 86. Wolfgang. 79 meditation. 56. Karl. 65–67 The Holy Men of India. 4. 7. 76. 85 mand ala. 95 prana. 60. 77. 30–35 . John. 63. 84 mysticism. 30 ¯ Nietzsche. 47 ¯. 41 Iyer. 16. 26–30 in hearing. 43. 34. 40. 30–40 Hick. 1. 14–20 See also psychological processes Leibniz. 15. D. R. 43. 7. 12–20. 52 See also consciousness moks a. 20 Nirvana. 53. A. 91 Mumme. 39. 19. 45. 6. K. 83. 85 idea. 36. 89. G. 67 human nature. 86. 86. 56–60. 92 Ji ¯van-Mukti-Viveka of Vidyaranya. 14 ¯ ¯. 55.. 65 perception. 63–64 mescaline. 82 ji ¯van-mukti (living liberation). 79. 67. 61–69 and Karma. 40. S. 12–14 power of scriptural words. 3. 12. Rudolf. William. 46–47 omniscience. 55 psychological processes in speaking. 51. 40. I. 67. 92. 25. 67. 54. 40. 37 ¯. 69. 55. 26.. 71–82. 82. 60. 73 Kosambi. mantra. 39. 63–64 and mysticism. 1. 59. 52 as passive. 3. 2 ¯. 35. 13. 26. 82 passion (ra ga). 52. niyamas. 38. 98 memory and the unconscious. 58 memory. 89. 56. 91. 11 Maharshi. 19 knowledge. 92. 23. 41 language. 61. 53. Robert. 79 ¯ Jung. 23. 54. 65. John. 58. 78. Patricia. 44 prajña . . 11ff. 47. 17. 73–77 and perception. 92 Pauli. 52 Locke. 22. 37. 91 perfectability of. 12. 31 Plato. 93 pas yanti vak. 100 inference. 74 Kale.. 1. 69 ¯ prakti. 44 ¯ Passmore. 66. 53. 36. Carl.114 INDEX hearing.¯ ¯ pratibha. 38. 60. 59. 64. 24. 6. 78. 59. 23 power of ordinary words. 18.. 25. 58. 65 ¯s I´vara. 89. 52. 39. 103 . 80 extra-sensory (ESP). 51. 58. 46. See pratibha ¯ phoneme. 47 ¯ Pribram. 45. 52 logos. 83 karma. 88–89 Otto. 34 individuation. 80. 4. 54. 89 na da. 56. 64. 84.
36–40 ¯ sama dhi. Sankara. 27 ¯ ¯ ¯ vaikhari vak. 46 Yoga. 39. 40. 39. 61. 25. 77. Robert. 30. 91. 81 smrti. 75. 89 nirvicara samadhi. vak. 23 s Stace. 21. 73. ¯ samsa ra. 40 ´ruti. 58. 68. ´ Vaira gya-S ataba of Bhartrhari. 80. 25. speaking. 39. 95. ¯ . 72. 35. 25. 43. ¯ ¯ya . 39. ¯ See also samsara release from rebirth (salvation). 21. 22. 36 . 7.. 51.. H. 30. Walter. Charles. 77–81. 52. 15. 60. 51. 40. is. ¯. 3. 34. 37. 30. 51. 29. 52 Taoism.INDEX 115 Psychology. 18. 13. 7. 53. 36. 68. 87. 53. 42ff. 92. 23. 14. 23 . 59. 1. Jean. 16. 63–64. 52. 40 ´ Sabdapurvayoga. 83–92. 48. 89 Yoga and human nature. 83. 11. 14. 33. 24. 34. 78. 83. 7. 62 ´abda. 83–90 Yoga and memory. 36. 36–40 Yoga techniques (yoganga). T. 59. 34. 35. 91 telepathy. 84 ¯. 82. 18. 74. 77. 86–87 Wilbur. 19. 55. 37. . 40. 91 ´ . 55. 59. 80. 22. 59. 23. ¯ samska ra. 31.. 33. 91 ¯ ¯ Veda. 15. 89 . 20. 32. 35. 79 ¯ . 35. 67. 89. 22. 23. 68. 56. 26. 92 Upanisads. 1 St. modern Western. 40. 81. 36. 26. 25. 4.s Ryle. 22 self. 2. 36. 54. 36. Jung. 51. 20 See also moksa . 65–67 Yoga of the Word. 35. 27. 22. 7. 67. 18. 19. 38. 95 . 33. 95 Varenne. Transpersonal purusa. 36–39. 82 synapse. 35 Sa nkhya-Yoga. ¯ ¯ 42–48 Yoga Sutras on language. 20 . 31. 38. 77. 35. 57. 84 vasana. 14. 19. 38. 89 I-self. 19. 18. 69. 25. 48. 98–99 Yoga Sutras assumed by Bhartrhari. 60. 87 we-self. 21–40 ¯ . 57. 26 Washburn. G. 28. ¯ ¯ 78. 29. 24. 39. Pribram. 71. 13. Sarvepali. 24. 40. 75. 21. 26–30 sphot a. 26. 28. 58. 40 ¯ as interpreted by the Yoga Sutras. 80. 57. ¯ 82 savitarka sama dhi. 1. 87 siddhis (psychic powers). 33. Gilbert. 84 Raja. 84 . 83. 1.Sataka. 11. 5. 92 unconscious. 12–20 ¯ zen. 37. 39. 40. 78. Ken. 90. 52. 17. Sastri. 82 Stcherbatsky. Alan. 20. 16. san keta. 58. 56. See also Freud. 91. 69. 32. 39 ¯ Vakyapadi of Bhartrhari. 61–63 Yoga and mysticism. 39. 67 . K. ¯ 56. 16. 88–89. 15. 17. 45 . 72 R. 12. 53. 77 Tart. 30. 24. 34. 37. 31. 64. 65. 24. 33. 7. 1. 18. 82 nirvitarka sama dhi. 35. 14. Paul. 24. 35. 82 ¯ savicara sama dhi. 34. Radhakrishnan. 2. 23. 58. 95 reincarnation. ¯ 79. 35. Kunjunni. 85. 2. 85ff. 86 Woodworth. 73. 13 Transpersonal Psychology. 81. 39. 52. 3. 76. 1–5. 46ff. 40 ¯ ¯ pas yanti vak. 39. ritual prayer. Yoga Sutras of Patañjali. 79 s ´ Sabdabrahman. 18 Roland. 89 Yoga and perception. 39 ´ ¯ sukma vak. 38. 34. 19. 35. 85. Michael. 7. 84. 14. 25. 75. 38. 16. 63. 96 ¯ madhyama vak. 52–60 Yoga and modern Psychology. 54 tabula rasa (mind as). 58. 18. 39. 33. 74. 66. 52 Yamas. ´ Yoga Sutras assumed in Vairagya.
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