Good introductions to the study of business cycles include Erik Lundberg (ed.), The Business Cycle in the Post-War World (1955, reprinted 1986); R.C.O. Matthews, The Business Cycle (1959, reissued 1967); Robert Aaron Gordon, Business Fluctuations, 2nd ed. (1961); Alvin Harvey Hansen, Business Cycles and National Income, expanded ed. (1964); and Henri Guitton, Fluctuations et croissance économiques, 3rd ed. (1970). Famous surveys of business cycle theories are Joseph A. Schumpeter, Business Cycles: A Theoretical, Historical, and Statistical Analysis of the Capitalist Process, 2 vol. (1939, reprinted 1982); and Gottfried Haberler, Prosperity and Depression, 5th ed. (1964). J. Tinbergen, Statistical Testing of Business-Cycle Theories, 2 vol. (1939, reissued 2 vol. in 1, 1968), attempts to verify by econometric analysis the theories surveyed in Haberler’s work. The nontheoretical approach to business-cycle research is set forth in Arthur F. Burns and Wesley C. Mitchell, Measuring Business Cycles (1946); and further developed in Geoffrey Hoyt Moore, Business Cycle Indicators, 2 vol. (1961). Important articles are collected in American Economic Association, Readings in Business Cycle Theory (1944, reprinted 1980), and Readings in Business Cycles (1965). History and politics are dealt with in Vivian Walsh and Harvey Gram, Classical and Neoclassical Theories of General Equilibrium: Historical Origins and Mathematical Structure (1980); Dennis C. Mueller, Public Choice II (1989), which provides equilibrium-model-based analyses of the intersection between politics and economics; and James E. Alt and Kenneth A. Shepsle (eds.), Perspectives on Positive Political Economy (1990).
The basic principles of the modern theory of income analysis, often called macroeconomics, may be found in any contemporary textbook of economics. Two good introductions to this subject are George T. McCandless, Jr., Macroeconomic Theory (1991), neoclassical in approach; and Joseph Stiglitz, Economics (1993), Keynesian-oriented. At the intermediate level, the two competing alternatives for reaching a sound understanding of national income theory are Robert J. Barro and Vittorio Grilli, European Macroeconomics (1994), which applies the intertemporal equilibrium approach to macroeconomic analysis; and Rudiger Dornbusch and Stanley Fischer, Macroeconomics, 6th ed. (1994), which follows an IS-LM approach. Three advanced textbooks in macroeconomic theory which exhibit the high degree of formalization that has become characteristic of the macroeconomic literature since the 1970’s are Thomas J. Sargent, Macroeconomic Theory, 2nd ed. (1987), and Dynamic Macroeconomic Theory (1987); and Olivier Jean Blanchard and Stanley Fischer, Lectures on Macroeconomics (1989).
More specialized or intensive treatments of macroeconomics are John Maynard Keynes, The General Theory of Employment, Interest, and Money (1936, reissued 1991), the classic theoretical work in the field; Seymour E. Harris (ed.), The New Economics: Keynes’ Influence on Theory and Public Policy (1947, reprinted 1973), a collection of early essays on Keynes and his ideas, representing the thinking of its time; and Gardner Ackley, Macroeconomic Analysis and Theory (1978), an introductory text. Later evaluations by leading economists of the significance and influence of Keynesian ideas may be found in Roy F. Harrod, The Life of John Maynard Keynes (1951, reissued 1982), offering insight into the genesis of Keynes’s ideas; H.G. Johnson, “The General Theory After Twenty-five Years,” The American Economic Review, 51:1–17 (1961), providing a retrospective survey from a “monetarist” point of view; Robert Lekachman (ed.), Keynes’ General Theory: Reports of Three Decades (1964); Axel Leijonhufvud, On Keynesian Economics and the Economics of Keynes (1968), an interesting but difficult appraisal of the development of “Keynesian” ideas; and Herbert Stein, The Fiscal Revolution in America, rev. ed. (1990), examining the relationship between Keynesian thinking and governmental policies in the United States.
Some important perspectives on the successes and failures of economic strategies that have resulted in fluctuations are John Kenneth Galbraith, Economics and the Public Purpose (1973), and Economics in Perspective: A Critical History (1987); and Douglass C. North, Institutions, Institutional Change, and Economic Performance (1990). Two other works that offer perspectives on economic theory and its applications are Neil de Marchi and Mark Blaug (eds.), Appraising Economic Theories (1991); and Mark Blaug, The Methodology of Economics; or, How Economists Explain, 2nd ed. (1992).