are some archaeological terms. Here, you can find the meanings to
words read in our articles and other sources.
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absolute dating: the determination of age with reference
to a specific time scale, such as a fixed calendrical system; also
referred to as chronometric dating.
aerial reconnaissance: an important survey
technique in the discovery and recording of archaeological sites (see
also reconnaissance survey).
altithermal: a postulated climatic period
characterized by warmer and/or drier conditions approximately 4,000-8,000
amino-acid racemization: a method used in
the dating of both human and animal bone. Its special significance
is that with a small sample (10g) it can be applied to material up
to 100,000 years old, i.e. beyond the time range of radiocarbon dating.
analogy: a process of reasoning whereby two
entities that share some similarities are assumed to share many others.
ancillary sample: any non-artifactual materials
collected by archaeologists to aid in dating, paleoenvironmental reconstruction,
or other interpretations - e.g. carbon samples, soil samples, palynological
anthropology: the study of humanity - our
physical characteristics as animals, and our unique non-biological
characteristics we call culture. The subject is generally broken down
into three subdisciplines: biological (physical) anthropology, cultural
(social) anthropology, and archaeology.
anthropomorphic: "man-like." Used to describe
artifacts or art work decorated with human features or with a man-like
arbitrary level: an excavation level defined
by factors of convenience, with no necessary relationship to site-stratigraphy
or cultural components.
archaeological culture: a constantly recurring
assemblage of artifacts assumed to be representative of a particular
set of behavioral activities carried out at a particular time and
place (cf. culture).
archaeomagnetic dating: sometimes referred
to as paleomagnetic dating. it is based on the fact that changes in
the earth's magnetic field over time can be recorded as remnant magnetism
in materials such as baked clay structure (ovens, kilns, and hearths).
archaeozoology: sometimes referred to as zooarchaeology,
this involves the identification and analysis of faunal species from
archaeological sites, as an aid to the reconstruction of human diets
and to an understanding of the contemporary environment at the time
articulated: two or more bones left in their
anatomical position after tissue decay.
artifact: any manually portable product of
human workmanship (see feature). In its broadest sense includes tools,
weapons, ceremonial items, art objects, all industrial waste, and
all floral and faunal remains modified by human activity.
assemblage: a group of artifacts recurring
together at a particular time and place, and representing the sum
of human activities.
association: the co-occurrence of an artifact
with other archaeological remains, usually in the same matrix.
atomic absorption spectrometry (AAS): a method
of analyzing artifact composition similar to optical emission spectrometry
(OES) in that it measures energy in the form of visible light waves.
It is capable of measuring up to 40 different elements with an accuracy
of c. 1 percent.
attribute: a minimal characteristic of an
artifact such that it cannot be further subdivided; attributes commonly
studied include aspects of form, style, decoration, color, and raw
attritional age profile: a mortality pattern
based on bone or tooth wear which is characterized by an overrepresentation
of young and old animals in relation to their numbers in live populations.
It suggests either scavenging of attritional mortality victims (i.e.
those dying from natural causes or from non-human predation) or the
hunting by humans or other predators of the most vulnerable individuals.
augering: a subsurface detection method using
either a hand or machine-powered drill to determine the depth and
character of archaeological deposits.
azimuth: a magnetic bearing sighted from your
position to a known landmark. Used in navigation and in determining
B.P.: "Before Present." the notation commonly used on radiocarbon
dates, e.g. 1,000 B.P. = 1,000 years before 1950 A.D., or approximately
back-dirt: the excavated matrix or fill of
a site, Presumed to be of little or no further archaeological significance.
back-filling: the process of refilling a completed
basalt: a fine-grained volcanic rock used
for the manufacture of chipped stone artifacts. Color black to gray,
texture granular to glass-like.
base-line: an arbitrary line established by
stakes and string, or by surveying instrument, from which measurements
are taken to produce a site-map, or to provide an initial axis for
an excavation grid.
baulks: unexcavated "walls" which may be left
between pits to provide stratigraphic control.
biface: a stone artifact flaked on both faces.
bipoint: a bone or stone artifact pointed
at both ends.
bone industry: all the bone artifacts from
a particular site.
bosing (or bowsing): a subsurface detection
method performed by striking the ground with a heavy wooden mallet
or a lead-filled container on a long handle.
brain endocasts: these are made by pouring
latex rubber into a skull, 50 as to produce an accurate image of the
inner surface of the cranium. This method gives an estimate of cranial
capacity and has been used on early hominid skulls.
break-in-slope: any abrupt change in the gradient
of a topographic surface, such as the edge of a cliff, terrace scarp,
breaking chain: the process of obtaining horizontal
distances over sloping terrain with a surveyor's chain by measuring
stepped level intervals up the slope.
brunton compass: a sophisticated magnetic
compass used as a basic surveying instrument. Also known as the "Brunton
calcined bone: burned bone reduced to white or blue mineral
calendrical system: a system of measuring
time that is based on natural recurring units of time, such as revolutions
of the earth around the sun. Time is determined by the number of such
units that have preceded or elapsed with reference to a specific point
carbon sample: a quantity of organic material,
usually charcoal, collected for radiocarbon dating.
catalogue number: a number assigned all items recovered by archaeological
research to cross-index them to the catalogue.
catalogue: the systematic list recording artifacts
and other finds, recovered by archaeological research, including their
description and Provenience.
cation-ratio dating: this method aspires to
the direct dating of rock carvings and engravings, and is also potentially
applicable to Paleolithic artifacts with a strong patina caused by
exposure to desert dust. It depends on the principle that cations
of certain elements are more soluble than others; they leach out of
rock varnish more rapidly than the less soluble elements, and their
concentration decreases with time.
chronometric dating: a dating system that
refers to a specific point or range of time. Chronometric dates are
not necessarily exact dates, and they are often expressed as a range.
cluster analysis: a multivariate statistical
technique which assesses the similarities between units or assemblages,
based on the occurrence or non-occurrence of specific artifact types
or other components within them.
cognitive archaeology: the study of past ways
of thought and symbolic structures from material remains.
cognitive map: an interpretive framework of
the world which, it is argued, exists in the human mind and affects
actions and decisions as well as knowledge structures.
composite tool: a tool formed of two or more
joined parts, e.g. "composite toggling harpoon head".
concentration: a notable accumulation of archaeological
materials in a small area, such as a "concentration of flakes" etc.
contour line: a line on a map connecting points
of equal elevation.
contoured level: an excavation level with
a floor parallel to the slope of the ground surface.
cultural anthropology: a subdiscipline of
anthropology concerned with the non-biological, behavioral aspects
of society; i.e. the social, linguistic, and technological components
underlying human behavior. Two important branches of cultural anthropology
are ethnography (the study of living cultures) and ethnology (which
attempts to compare cultures using ethnographic evidence). In Europe,
it is referred to as social anthropology.
cultural deposit: sediments and materials
laid down by, or heavily modified by, human activity.
cultural ecology: a term devised by Julian
Steward to account for the dynamic relationship between human society
and its environment, in which culture is viewed as the primary adaptive
cultural group: a complex of regularly occurring
associated artifacts, features, burial types, and house forms comprising
a distinct identity.
cultural materialism: the theory, espoused
by Marvin Harris, that ideas, values, and religious beliefs are the
means or products of adaptation to environmental conditions ("material
cultural relativism: the ability to view the
beliefs and customs of other peoples within the context of their culture
rather than one's own.
cultural resource management (CRM): the safeguarding
of the archaeological heritage through the protection of sites and
through salvage archaeology (rescue archaeology), generally within
the framework of legislation designed to safeguard the past.
culture-historical approach: an approach to
archaeological interpretation which uses the procedure of the traditional
historian (including emphasis on specific circumstances elaborated
with rich detail, and processes of inductive reasoning).
datum: a fixed reference point on an archaeological site
from which measurements are taken.
deductive nomological (D-N) explanation: a
formal method of explanation based on the testing of hypotheses derived
from general laws.
deep-sea cores: cores drilled from the sea
bed that provide the most coherent record of climate changes on a
worldwide scale. The cores contain shells of microscopic marine organisms
(foraminifera) laid down on the ocean floor through the continuous
process of sedimentation. Variations in the ratio of two oxygen isotopes
in the calcium carbonate of these shells give a sensitive indicator
of sea temperature at the time the organisms were alive.
diachronic: referring to phenomena as they
change over time; i.e. employing a chronological perspective (cf.
diatom analysis: a method of environmental
reconstruction based on plant microfossils. Diatoms are unicellular
algae, whose silica cell walls survive after the algae die, and they
accumulate in large numbers at the bottom of rivers and lakes. Their
assemblages directly reflect the floristic composition of the water's
extinct communities, as well as the water's salinity, alkalinity,
and nutrient status.
diffusion: when elements of one culture spread
to another without wholesale dislocation or migration.
domestication: the process by which people
try to control the reproductive rates of animals and plants by ordering
the environment in such a way as to favor certain species.
early man: in the New World this term refers to the oldest
known human occupants - i.e. prior to ca. 8,000 B.P.
ecological determinism: a form of explanation
in which it is implicit that changes in the environment determine
changes in human society.
electrical resistivity: see soil resistivity.
A standard cleaning process in archaeological conservation. Artifacts
are placed in a chemical solution, and by passing a weak current between
them and a surrounding metal grill, the corrosive salts move from
the cathode (object) to the anode (grill), removing any accumulated
deposit and leaving the artifact clean.
electron probe microanalysis: used in the
analysis of artifact composition, this technique is similar to XRF
(X-ray fluorescence spectrometry), and is useful for studying small
changes in composition within the body of an artifact.
electron spin resonance (ESR): a chronometric
dating technique based upon the behavior of electrons in crystals
exposed to naturally occurring radioactivity; used to date limestone,
coral, shell, teeth, and other materials. Enables trapped electrons
within bone and shell to be measured without the heating that thermoluminescence
emulation: one of the most frequent features
accompanying competition, where customs, buildings, and artifacts
in one society may be adopted by neighboring ones through a process
of imitation which is often competitive in nature.
environmental archaeology: a field in which
inter-disciplinary research, involving archaeologists and natural
scientists, is directed at the reconstruction of human use of plants
and animals, and how past societies adapted to changing environmental
eolian deposits: sediments transported by
wind (e.g. sand-dunes, loess, etc.).
ethnoarchaeology: the study of contemporary
cultures with a view to understanding the behavioral relationships
which underlie the production of material culture.
ethnographic analogy: interpretation of archaeological
remains by comparison to historical cultures.
ethnography: that aspect of cultural anthropology
concerned with the descriptive documentation of living cultures.
ethnohistory: the study of ethnographic cultures
through historical records.
ethnology: a subset of cultural anthropology
concerned with the comparative study of contemporary cultures, with
a view to deriving general principles about human society.
excavation grid: a system of rectangular coordinates,
established on the ground surface by stakes and string, which divides
a site into excavation units.
experimental archaeology: the study of past
behavioral processes through experimental reconstruction under carefully
controlled scientific conditions.
fall-off analysis: the study of regularities in the way in
which quantities of traded items found in the archaeological record
decline as the distance from the source increases. This may be plotted
as a falloff curve, with the quantities of material (y-axis) plotted
against distance from source (X-axis).
faunal dating: a method of relative dating
based on observing the evolutionary changes in particular species
of mammals, so as to form a rough chronological sequence.
faunal remains: bones and other animal parts
found in archaeological sites. Important in the reconstruction of
past ecosystems and cultural subsistence patterns.
field data forms: printed forms used to record
archaeological survey or excavation information. Special forms are
frequently used to record artifact proveniences; features and burials;
site locations and descriptions; and level-notes.
fission-track dating: a dating method based
on the operation of a radioactive clock, the spontaneous fission of
an isotope of uranium present in a wide range of rocks and minerals.
As with potassium-argon dating, with whose time range it overlaps,
the method gives useful dates from rocks adjacent to archaeological
flake: a fragment removed from a core or nucleus
of cryptocrystalline or fine-grained rock by percussion or pressure.
May be used as a tool with no further deliberate modification, may
be retouched, or may serve as a preform for further reduction.
floral remains: remnants of past vegetation
found in archaeological sites (see microfloral remains). Useful in
the reconstruction of past environments.
fluvial deposits: sediments laid down by running
frequency seriation: a relative dating method
which relies principally on measuring changes in the proportional
abundance, or frequency, observed among finds (e.g. counts of tool
types, or of ceramic fabrics).
functionalism: the theory that all elements
of a culture are functional in that they serve to satisfy culturally
defined needs of the people in that society or requirements of the
society as a whole.
geochemical analysis: the investigatory technique which involves
taking soil samples at regular intervals from the surface of a site,
and measuring their phosphate content and other chemical properties.
grave goods (also: "grave inclusions", "mortuary goods",
etc.): tools, weapons, food, or ceremonial objects placed
with a burial.
graver: a small pointed or chisel-like stone
tool used for incising or engraving.
grid-system: a system of rectangular excavation
or sampling units laid over a site by strings and stakes.
ground reconnaissance: a collective name for
a wide variety of methods for identifying individual archaeolog
sites, including consultation of documentary sources, place-name evidence,
local folklore, and legend, but primarily actual fieldwork.
ground stone: stone artifacts shaped by sawing,
grinding, and/or polishing with abrasive materials (e.g. "ground slate
knives", "polished soapstone pendants" etc.).
hand-level: a small, simple, hand-held surveying instrument
for establishing horizontal lines-of-sight over short distances.
historical archaeology: the archaeological
study of historically documented cultures. In North America, research
is directed at colonial and post-colonial settlement, analogous to
the study of medieval and post-medieval archaeology in Europe.
historical particularism: a detailed descriptive
approach to anthropology associated with Franz Boas and his students,
and designed as an alternative to the broad generalizing approach
favored by anthropologists such as Morgan and Tylor.
historiographic approach: a form of explanation
based primarily on traditional descriptive historical frameworks.
hoards: deliberately buried groups of valuables
or prized possessions, often in times of conflict or war, and which,
for one reason or another, have not been reclaimed. Metal hoards are
a primary source of evidence for the European Bronze Age.
holocene: the post-glacial period, beginning
about 10,000 B.P.
horizontal datum: a base measuring point ("0.0
point") used as the origin of rectangular coordinate systems for mapping
or for maintaining excavation provenience.
horizontal provenience: the location of an
object on a two-dimensional plane surface.
house-pit: an aboriginally excavated house
hypothetico-deductive explanation: a form
of explanation based on the formulation of hypotheses and the establishment
from them by deduction of consequences which can then be tested against
the archaeological data.
iconography: an important component of cognitive archaeology,
this involves the study of artistic representations which usually
have an overt religious or ceremonial significance; e.g. individual
deities may be distinguished, each with a special characteristic,
such as corn with the corn god, or the sun with a sun goddess etc.
idealist explanation: a form of explanation
that lays great stress on the search for insights into the historical
circumstances leading up to the event under study in terms primarily
of the ideas and motives of the individuals involved.
in situ: archaeological items are said to
be "in situ " when they are found in the location where they were
industry: all the artifacts in a site that
are made from the same material, such as the bone industry.
Iron Age: a cultural stage characterized by
the use of iron as the main metal.
isotopic analysis: an important source of
information on the reconstruction of prehistoric diets, this technique
analyzes the ratios of the principal isotopes preserved in human bone;
in effect the method reads the chemical signatures left in the body
by different foods. Isotopic analysis is also used in characterization
kill-site: a type of special activity site where large game
animals were killed and butchered.
landscape archaeology: the study of individual features including
level bag: a bag containing excavated materials
from a single level of a single excavation unit.
lexicostatistics: the study of linguistic
divergence between two languages, based on changes in a list of common
vocabulary terms and the sharing of common root words (see also glottochronology).
lichenometry: the study of lichen growth as
an aid to dating surface rock features and rock art.
life expectancy: the length of time that a person can, on the average,
expect to live.
light-table: a glass-topped table illuminated
from underneath, used in the laboratory photography of archaeological
lineage: a unilineal descent group composed
of people who trace their genealogies through specified links to a
linguistic anthropology: a subdivision of
anthropology that is concerned primarily with unwritten languages
(both prehistoric and modern), with variation within languages, and
with the social uses of language; traditionally divided into three
branches: descriptive linguistics, the systematic study of the way
language is constructed and used; historical linguistics, the study
of the origin of language in general and of the evolution of the languages
people speak today; and sociolinguistics, the study of the relationship
between language and social relations.
lithic technology: the process of manufacturing
tools etc. from stone. Most frequently refers to stone flaking.
lithology: the identification and study of
living floor: the horizontal layer of an archaeological
site that was once the surface occupied by a prehistoric group. It
is identified both by the fact that it is hard-packed and also by
the artifacts located on its surface.
locality: a very large site or site-area composed
of 2 or more concentrations or clusterings of cultural remains.
magnetometer: an electronic device for detecting small anomalies
in the earth's magnetic field. Can be used to explore certain subsurface
characteristics of an archaeological site prior to excavation.
material culture: the buildings, tools, and
other artifacts that include any material item that has had cultural
meaning ascribed to it, past and present.
Mesolithic: an Old World chronological period
beginning around 10,000 years ago, situated between the Paleolithic
and the Neolithic, and associated with the rise to dominance of microliths.
microfaunal remains: very small animal remains,
such as rodent bones, tiny bone fragments, insects, small mollusks,
foraminifera, etc., discovered in an archaeological site.
microfloral remains: very small plant materials
such as seeds, pollen, spores, phytoliths etc. discovered in an archaeological
site. Microfauna and microflora are extremely important in paleoenvironmental
midden: the accumulation of debris and domestic
waste products resulting from human use. The long-term disposal of
refuse can result in stratified deposits, which are useful for relative
mobiliary art: a term used for the portable
art of the Ice Age, comprising engravings and carvings on small objects
of stone, antler, bone, and ivory.
mold: a cavity left in firm sediment by the
decayed body of an organism.
monocausal explanation: the attribution of
one cause to the existence of a phenomenon.
mosaic evolution: the concept that major evolutionary
changes tend to take place in stages, not all at once. Human evolution
shows a mosaic pattern in the fact that small canine teeth, large
brains, and tool use did not all evolve at the same time.
multi-component: a site is said to be multi-component
when it shows evidence of 2 or more distinctive cultural occupations.
multicausal explanation: the attribution of
more than one cause to the existence of a phenomenon.
multilineal evolutionism: an anthropological
approach that focuses on the development of individual cultures or
populations without insisting that all follow the same evolutionary
multiplier effect: a term used in systems
thinking to describe the process by which changes in one field of
human activity (subsystem) sometimes act to promote changes in other
fields (subsystems) and in turn act on the original subsystem itself.
An instance of positive feedback, it is thought by some to be one
of the primary mechanisms of societal change.
multivariate explanation: explanation of culture
change, e.g. the origin of the state, which, in contrast to monocausal
approaches, stresses the interaction of several factors operating
Neolithic Revolution: a term coined by V.G. Childe in 1941
to describe the origin and consequences of farming (i.e. the development
of stock raising and agriculture), allowing the widespread development
of settled village life.
neutron scattering: a remote sensing technique
involving the placing of a probe into the soil in order to measure
the relative rates of neutron flows through the soil. Since stone
produces a lower count rate than soil. buried features can often be
non-probabilistic sampling: a non-statistical
sampling strategy (in contrast to probabilistic sampling) which concentrates
on sampling areas on the basis of intuition, historical documentation,
or long field experience in the area.
off-site data: evidence from a range of -information, including
scatters of artifacts and features such as plowmarks and field boundaries,
that provides important evidence about human exploitation of the environment.
open-area excavation: the opening up of large
horizontal areas for excavation, used especially where single period
deposits lie close to the surface as, for example, with the remains
of American Indian or European Neolithic long houses.
osteodontokeratic culture: an archaeological
culture based upon tools made of bone, teeth, and hoary.
osteology: the study of bones.
ostracum: fragments (as of pottery) containing
inscriptions. The singular is "ostraca."
outwash channel: a stream valley formed by
outwash deposit: fluvial sediments laid down
by glacial melt-water.
paleoanthropology: the study of the fossil record and archaeology.
paleoecology: the study of the relationship
of extinct organisms or groups of organisms to their environments.
paleoentomology: the study of insects from
archaeological contexts. The survival of insect exoskeletons, which
are quite resistant to decomposition, is an important source of evidence
in the reconstruction of paleo-environments.
paleoethnobotany (archaeobotany): the recovery
and identification of plant remains from archaeological contexts,
important in the reconstruction of past environments and economies.
paleoindian: a term most frequently applied
to early projectile point "cultures" of North America (e.g. Clovis,
Folsom, Cody, etc.).
Paleolithic: the archaeological period before
c.10,000 BC, characterized by the earliest known stone tool manufacture.
paleontologists: experts on animal life of
the distant past.
paleontology: that specialized branch of physical
anthropology that analyzes the emergence and subsequent evolution
of human physiology.
palynology: the analysis of fossil pollen
as an aid to the reconstruction of past vegetation and climates.
parietal art: a term used to designate art
on the walls of caves and shelters, or on huge blocks.
pedestal: a raised area isolated around important
excavated materials to facilitate their study.
petroglyph: pictures, symbols, or other art
work pecked, carved or incised on natural rock surfaces.
physical anthropology: the scientific study
of the physical characteristics, variability, and evolution of the
physical environment: the complex of inanimate
elements that surround an organism.
pictograph: aboriginally painted designs on
natural rock surfaces. Red ochre is the most frequently used pigment
and natural or abstract motifs may be represented.
pithouse: a semi-subterranean "earth-lodge"
dwelling. Usually consisted of an earth-covered log framework roof
over a circular to rectangular excavation.
Pleistocene: the latest major geological epoch,
colloquially known as the "Ice Age" due to the multiple expansion
and retreat of glaciers. Ca. 3.000,000-10,000 years B.P.
pot-hunter: an "amateur archaeologist" who
vandalizes and destroys sites to add to his private collection, or
for monetary gain.
pre-ceramic period: the period prior to the
introduction of ceramic artifacts.
prehistory: the period of human history before
the advent of writing.
preservation potential: the probability of
a bone's being preserved after death.
probabilistic sampling: sampling method, employing
probability theory, designed to draw reliable general conclusions
about a site or region, based on small sample areas. Four types of
sampling strategies are recognized: (1) simple random sampling; (2)
stratified random sampling; (3) systematic sampling; (4) stratified
processual archaeology: an approach that stresses
the dynamic relationship between social and economic aspects of culture
and the environment as the basis for understanding the processes of
culture, change. Uses the scientific methodology of problem statement,
hypothesis formulation, and subsequent testing. The earlier functional-processual
archaeology has been contrasted with cognitive-processual archaeology,
where the emphasis is on integrating ideological and symbolic aspects.
profile drawing: a precise scale drawing of
the strata and horizons revealed in the walls of an excavation or
other exposure. A section which has been drawn is said to have been
profile: a section, or exposure of the ground,
showing depositional or developmental strata or horizons.
protohistoric: a period prior to the beginning
of written records in an area, but after that area has been initially
mentioned in reports written elsewhere.
radioactive decay: the regular process by which radioactive
isotopes break down into their decay products with a half-life which
is specific to the isotope in question (see also radiocarbon dating).
radiocarbon dating: an absolute dating method
based on the radioactive decay of Carbon-14 contained in organic materials.
radioimmunoassay: a method of protein analysis
whereby it is possible to identify protein molecules surviving in
fossils which are thousands and even millions of years old.
ranked societies: societies in which there
is unequal access to prestige and status e.g. chiefdoms and states.
reconnaissance survey: a broad range of techniques
involved in the location of archaeological sites, e.g. the recording
of surface artifacts and features, and the sampling of natural and
relativism: the concept that a cultural system
can be viewed only in terms of the principles, background, frame of
reference, and history that characterize it.
replication: the experimental reproduction
or duplication of prehistoric artifacts in an attempt to better understand
how they were made and used in the past.
salvage archaeology (also "rescue archaeology", or "crisis archaeology"):
archaeological research carried out to preserve or rescue sites, materials
and data from areas threatened by man-made or natural disturbance.
The most common type of archaeological fieldwork conducted in North
America at the present time.
secondary deposit: a body of natural or cultural
sediments which have been disturbed and re-transported since their
sediment: material that was suspended in water
and that settles at the bottom of a body of water.
sedimentation: the accumulation of geological
or organic material deposited by air, water, or ice.
segmentary societies: relatively small and
autonomous groups, usually of agriculturalists who regulate their
own affairs; in some cases, they may join together with other comparable
segmentary societies to form a larger ethnic unit.
seriation: a relative dating technique based
on the chronological ordering of a group of artifacts or assemblages,
where the most similar are placed adjacent to each other in the series.
Two types of seriation can be recognized, frequency seriation and
settlement pattern: the spatial distribution
of cultural activities across a landscape at a given moment in time.
shell midden: a site formed of mainly concentrated
sidescan sonar: a survey method used in underwater
archaeology which provides the broadest view of the sea-floor. An
acoustic emitter is towed behind a vessel and sends out sound waves
in a fan-shaped beam. These pulses of sonic energy are reflected back
to a transducer-- return time depending on distance traveled--and
recorded on a rotating drum.
site catchment analysis (SCA): a type of off-site
analysis which concentrates on the total area from which a site's
contents have been derived; at its simplest, a site's catchment can
be thought of as a full inventory of artifactual and non-artifactual
remains and their sources.
sociobiology: the study of the biological
control of social behavior.
sociocultural anthropology: a branch of anthropology
that deals with variations in patterns of social interaction and differences
in cultural behavior.
sociolinguistics: a branch of anthropological
linguistics that studies how language and culture are related and
how language is used in different social contexts.
step-trenching: an excavation method employed
on very deep sites, such as Near Eastern tell sites, in which the
excavation proceeds downwards in a series of gradually narrowing steps.
storage-pit (also called cache-pits): circular
excavations usually less than 3 m in diameter assumed to have aboriginally
functioned as storage "cellars".
stratified random sampling: a form of probabilistic
sampling in which the region or site is divided into natural zones
or strata such as cultivated land and forest; units ate then chosen
by a random number procedure so as to give each zone a number of squares
proportional to its area, thus overcoming the inherent bias in simple
stratified society: a society in which extensive
subpopulations are accorded differential treatment.
structuralist approaches: interpretations
which stress that human actions are guided by beliefs and symbolic
concepts, and that underlying these are structures of thought which
find expression in various forms. The proper object of study is therefore
to uncover the structures of thought and to study their influence
in shaping the ideas in the minds of the human actors who created
the archaeological record.
subsistence pattern: the basic means by which
a human group extracted and utilized energy from its environment.
surface collection: archaeological materials
obtained from the ground surface.
surface finish: in the study of ceramic artifacts,
the mainly decorative outer elements of a vessel.
surface scatter: archaeological materials
found distributed over the ground surface.
survey area: the region within which archaeological
sites are to be located.
surveying: (1) in archaeology, the process
of locating archaeological sites. (2) more generally, the process
of mapping and measuring points on the ground surface (e.g. "legal"
or topographic surveying").
systems thinking: a method of formal analysis
in which the object of study is viewed as comprising distinct analytical
sub-units. Thus in archaeology, it comprises a form of explanation
in which a society or culture is seen through the interaction and
interdependence of its component parts; these are referred to as system
parameters, and may include such things as population size, settlement
pattern, crop production, technology etc.
taphonomy: the study of processes which have affected organic
materials such as bone after death; it also involves the microscopic
analysis of tooth-marks or cut marks to assess the effects of butchery
or scavenging activities.
temper: materials added to clay in the manufacture
of ceramic artifacts, to prevent cracking during firing. Could include
vegetal fibers, feathers, rock fragments, sand, or ground-up potsherds.
test pit (also "test excavation"): a small
exploratory "dig" designed to determine a site's depth, and contents
prior to major excavation.
thermal prospection: a remote sensing method
used in aerial reconnaissance. It is based on weak variations in temperature
which can be found above buried structures whose thermal properties
are different from those of their surroundings.
thermoluminescence dating (TL): a chronometric
dating method based on the fact that some materials, when heated,
give off a flash of light. The intensity of the light is proportional
to the amount of radiation the sample has been exposed to and the
length of time since the sample was heated. It has much in common
with electron spin resonance (ESR).
thin-section analysis: a technique whereby
microscopic thin sections are cut from a stone object or potsherd
and examined with a petrological microscope to determine the source
of the material.
Three Age System: a classification system
devised by C.J. Thomsen for the sequence of technological periods
(stone, bronze, and iron) in Old World prehistory. It established
the principle that by classifying artifacts, one could produce a chronological
till: sediments laid down directly by glacial
ice. Commonly consists of unsorted angular rock fragments mixed with
topographic map: a map which accurately depicts
the physical features and relief of an area.
tree-ring dating: a chronometric dating method
in which the age of a wood sample is determined by counting the number
of annual growth rings.
tuff: geological formation composed of compressed
typology: the systematic organization of artifacts
into types on the basis of shared attributes.
uranium series dating: a dating method based on the radioactive
decay of isotopes of uranium. It has proved particularly useful for
the period before 50,000 years ago, which lies outside the time range
of radiocarbon dating.
utilized flake: a stone flake used for a tool
without deliberate retouch, but exhibiting use-wear.
utilized material: pieces of stone that have
been used without modification.
variable: any property that may be displayed in different
ventral: the front or bottom side of an animal
vertical datum: a base measurement point from
which all elevations are determined.
weathering: the natural chemical or physical alteration of
an object or deposit through time.
world system: a term coined by the historian
Wallerstein to designate an economic unit, articulated by trade networks
extending far beyond the boundaries of individual political units
(nation states), and linking them together in a larger functioning
X-ray diffraction analysis: a technique used in identifying
minerals present in artifact raw materials; it can also be used in
geomorphological contexts to identify particular clay minerals in
sediments, and thus the specific source from which the sediment was
X-ray fluorescence spectrometry (XRF): a method
used in the analysis of artifact composition, in which the sample
is irradiated with a beam of X-rays which excite electrons associated
with atoms on the surface.
zooarchaeology: the study of faunal remains found in archaeological
sites and their cultural significance.
zoomorphic: "animal-like". refers to art-work
or decorated objects with an animal motif or appearance.