wave, a ridge or swell on the surface of a body of water, normally having a forward motion distinct from the oscillatory motion of the particles that successively compose it. The undulations and oscillations may be chaotic and random, or they may be regular, with an identifiable wavelength between adjacent crests and with a definite frequency of oscillation. In the latter case the waves may be progressive, in which the crests and troughs appear to travel at a steady speed in a direction at right angles to themselves. Alternatively, they may be standing waves, in which there is no progression. In this case, there is no rise and fall at all in some places, the nodes, while elsewhere the surface rises to a crest and then falls to a trough at a regular frequency.
Physical characteristics of surface waves
There are two physical mechanisms that control and maintain wave motion. For most waves, gravity is the restoring force that causes any displacements of the surface to be accelerated back toward the mean surface level. The kinetic energy gained by the fluid returning to its rest position causes it to overshoot, resulting in the oscillating wave motion. In the case of very short-wavelength disturbances of the surface (i.e., ripples), the restoring force is surface tension, wherein the surface acts like a stretched membrane. If the wavelength is less than a few millimetres, surface tension dominates the motion, which is described as a capillary wave. Surface gravity waves in which gravity is the dominant force have wavelengths greater than approximately 10 cm (4 inches). In the intermediate length range, both restoring mechanisms are important.
A wave’s amplitude is the maximum displacement of the surface above or below its resting position. The mathematical theory of water wave propagation shows that for waves whose amplitude is small compared to their length, the wave profile can be sinusoidal (that is, shaped like a sine wave), and there is a definite relationship between the wavelength and the wave period, which also controls the speed of wave propagation. Longer waves travel faster than shorter ones, a phenomenon known as dispersion. If the water depth is less than one-twentieth of the wavelength, the waves are known as long gravity waves, and their wavelength is directly proportional to their period. The deeper the water, the faster they travel. For capillary waves, shorter wavelengths travel faster than longer ones.
Waves whose amplitude is large compared with their length cannot be so readily described by mathematical theory, and their form is distorted from a sinusoidal shape. The troughs tend to flatten and the crests sharpen toward a point, a shape known as a conoidal wave. In deeper water the limiting height of a wave is one-seventh of its length. As it approaches this height, the pointed crests break to form whitecaps. In shallow water the long-amplitude waves distort, because crests travel faster than troughs to form a profile with a steep rise and slow fall. As such waves travel into shallower water on a beach, they steepen until breaking occurs.
The energy of the waves is proportional to the square of the amplitude. Mathematical analysis shows that a distinction must be made between the speed of the troughs and crests, called the phase speed, and the speed and direction of the transport of energy or information associated with the wave, termed the group velocity. For nondispersive long waves the two are equal, whereas for surface gravity waves in deep water the group velocity is only half the phase speed. Thus, in a train of waves spreading out over a pond after a sudden disturbance at a point, the wave front travels at only half the speed of the crests, which appear to run through the packet of waves and disappear at the front. For capillary waves the group velocity is one and one-half times the phase speed.
Waves on the sea surface are generated by the action of the wind. During generation the disturbed sea surface is not regular and contains many different oscillatory motions at different frequencies. Wave spectra are used by oceanographers to describe the distribution of energy at different frequencies. The form of the spectrum can be related to wind speed and direction and the duration of the storm and the fetch (or distance upwind) over which it has blown, and this information is used for wave prediction. After the storm has passed, the waves disperse, the longer-period waves (about 8 to 20 seconds) propagating long distances as well, while the shorter-period waves are damped out by internal friction.
Three types of water waves may be distinguished: wind waves and swell, wind surges, and sea waves of seismic origin (tsunamis). In addition, standing waves, or seiches, can occur in water bodies with enclosed or nearly enclosed basins, and internal waves, which appear as undulating layers of rapidly changing density with increasing depth, take place away from the water’s surface.
Wind waves and swell
Wind waves are the wind-generated gravity waves. After the wind has abated or shifted or the waves have migrated away from the wind field, such waves continue to propagate as swell.
The dependence of the sizes of the waves on the wind field is a complicated one. A general impression of this dependence is given by the descriptions of the various states of the sea corresponding to the scale of wind strengths known as the Beaufort scale, named after the British admiral Sir Francis Beaufort. He drafted it in 1808 using as his yardstick the surface of sail that a fully rigged warship of those days could carry in the various wind forces. When considering the descriptions of the sea surface, it must be remembered that the size of the waves depends not only on the strength of the wind but also on its duration and its fetch—i.e., the length of its path over the sea.
The theory of waves starts with the concept of simple waves, those forming a strictly periodic pattern with one wavelength and one wave period and propagating in one direction. Real waves, however, always have a more irregular appearance. They may be described as composite waves, in which a whole spectrum of wavelengths, or periods, is present and which have more or less diverging directions of propagation. In reporting observed wave heights and periods (or lengths) or in forecasting them, one height or one period is mentioned as the height or period, however, and some agreement is needed in order to guarantee uniformity of meaning. The height of simple waves means the elevation difference between the top of a crest and the bottom of a trough. The significant height, a characteristic height of irregular waves, is by convention the average of the highest one-third of the observed wave heights. Period, or wavelength, can be determined from the average of a number of observed time intervals between the passing of successive well-developed wave crests over a certain point, or of observed distances between them.
Wave period and wavelength are coupled by a simple relationship: wavelength equals wave period times wave speed, or L = TC, when L is wavelength, T is wave period, and C is wave speed.
The wave speed of surface gravity waves depends on the depth of water and on the wavelength, or period; the speed increases with increasing depth and increasing wavelength, or period. If the water is sufficiently deep, the wave speed is independent of water depth. This relationship of wave speed to wavelength and water depth (d) is given by the equations below. With g being the gravity acceleration (9.8 metres [about 32 feet] per second squared), C2 = gd when the wavelength is 20 times greater than the water depth (waves of this kind are called long gravity waves or shallow-water waves), and C2 = gL/2π when the wavelength is less than two times the water depth (such waves are called short waves or deepwater waves). For waves with lengths between 2 and 20 times the water depth, the wave speed is governed by a more-complicated equation combining these effects:
where tanh is the hyperbolic tangent.
A few examples are listed below for short waves, giving the period in seconds, the wavelength in metres, and wave speed in metres per second:
Waves often appear in groups as the result of interference of wave trains of slightly differing wavelengths. A wave group as a whole has a group speed that generally is less than the speed of propagation of the individual waves; the two speeds are equal only for groups composed of long waves. For deepwater waves, the group velocity (V) is half the wave speed (C). In the physical sense, group velocity is the velocity of propagation of wave energy. From the dynamics of the waves, it follows that the wave energy per unit area of the sea surface is proportional to the square of the wave height, except for the very last stage of waves running into shallow water, shortly before they become breakers.
The height of wind waves increases with increasing wind speed and with increasing duration and fetch of the wind (i.e., the distance over which the wind blows). Together with height, the dominant wavelength also increases. Finally, however, the waves reach a state of saturation because they attain the maximum significant height to which the wind can raise them, even if duration and fetch are unlimited. For instance, winds of 5 metres (16 feet) per second may raise waves with significant heights up to 0.5 metre (1.6 feet). Such a wave would have a corresponding wavelength of 16 metres (53 feet). Stronger winds blowing at 15 to 25 metres (49 to 82 feet) per second produce waves with heights of 4.5 to 12.5 metres (15 to 41 feet) and wavelengths that stretch from 140 to 400 metres (about 460 to 1,300 feet).
After becoming swell, the waves may travel thousands of kilometres over the ocean. This is particularly the case if the swell is from the large storms of moderate and high latitudes, whence it easily may travel into the subtropical and equatorial zones, and the swell of the trade winds, which runs into the equatorial calms. In traveling, the swell waves gradually become lower; energy is lost by internal friction and air resistance and by energy dissipation because of some divergence of the directions of propagation (fanning out). With respect to the energy loss, there is a selective damping of the composite waves, the shorter waves of the wave mixture suffering a stronger damping over a given distance than the longer ones. As a consequence, the dominant wavelength of the spectrum shifts toward the greater wavelengths. Therefore, an old swell must always be a long swell.
When waves run into shallow water, their speed of propagation and wavelength decrease, but the period remains the same. Eventually, the group velocity, the velocity of energy propagation, also decreases, and this decrease causes the height to increase. The latter effect may, however, be affected by refraction of the waves, a swerving of the wave crests toward the depth lines and a corresponding deviation of the direction of propagation. Refraction may cause a convergence or divergence of the energy stream and result in a raising or lowering of the waves, especially over nearshore elevations or depressions of the sea bottom.
In the final stage, the shape of the waves changes, and the crests become narrower and steeper until, finally, the waves become breakers (surf). Generally, this occurs where the depth is 1.3 times the wave height.
Running wind surges are long waves caused by a piling up of the water over a large area through the action of a traveling wind or pressure field. Examples include the surge in front of a traveling storm cyclone, particularly the devastating hurricane surge caused by a tropical cyclone, and the surge occasionally caused by a wind convergence line, such as a traveling front with a sharp wind shift.
Waves of seismic origin
A tsunami (Japanese: tsu, “harbour,” and nami, “wave”) is a very long wave of seismic origin that is caused by a submarine or coastal earthquake, landslide, or volcanic eruption. Such a wave may have a length of hundreds of kilometres and a period on the order of a quarter of an hour. It travels across the ocean at a tremendous speed. (Tsunamis are waves traveling at the wave speed given by C2 = gd.) To a depth of 4,000 metres (about 13,100 feet), for instance, the corresponding wave speed is about 200 metres (about 660 feet) per second, or 720 km (about 450 miles) per hour. In the open ocean the height of tsunamis may be less than 1 metre (3.3 feet), and they pass unnoticed. As they approach a continental shelf, however, their speed is reduced and their height increases dramatically. Tsunamis have caused enormous destruction of life and property, piling up in coastal waters at places thousands of kilometres away from their point of origin, particularly in the Pacific Ocean.
Standing waves, or seiches
A freestanding wave may arise in an enclosed or nearly enclosed basin as a free swinging or sloshing of the whole water mass. Such a standing wave is also called a seiche, after the name given to the oscillating movements of the water of Lake Geneva, Switzerland, where this phenomenon first was studied rigorously. The period of oscillation is independent of the force that first brought the water mass out of equilibrium (and that is supposed to have ceased thereafter); it depends only on the dimensions of the enclosing basin and on the direction in which the water mass is swinging. Assuming a simple rectangular basin of constant depth and the most simple lengthwise oscillation, the period of oscillation (T) is equal to two times the length of the basin divided by the wave speed computed from the shallow-water formula above. This relationship may be written: T = L/C, in which L equals two times the length of the basin and C is the wave speed found from the formula, using the known depth of the basin. Besides this fundamental tone (or response to stimuli), the water mass also may swing according to an overtone, showing one or more nodal lines across the basin.
The water in an open bay or marginal sea also may perform such a free oscillation as a standing wave, the difference being that in an open bay the greatest horizontal displacements are not in the middle of the bay but at the mouth. For the fundamental period of oscillation, the formula given above is used with a wavelength equal to four times the length (from the mouth to the closed end) of the bay. In practice, of course, it is more difficult than that, because the form of a bay or marginal sea is irregular and the depth differs from place to place. The North Sea has a period of lengthwise swinging of about 36 hours. The cause of such free oscillations may be a temporary wind or pressure field, which brings the sea surface out of its horizontal position and which afterward ceases to act more or less abruptly, leaving the water mass out of equilibrium.
Gravity waves also occur on internal “surfaces” within oceans. These surfaces represent strata of rapidly changing water density with increasing depth, and the associated waves are called internal waves. Internal waves manifest themselves by a regular rising and sinking of the water layers around which they centre, whereas the height of the sea surface is hardly affected at all. Because the restoring force, excited by the internal deformation of the water layers of equal density, is much smaller than in the case of surface waves, internal waves are much slower than the latter. Given the same wavelength, the period is much longer (the movements of the water particles being much more sluggish), and the speed of propagation is much smaller; the formulas for the speed of surface waves include the acceleration of gravity, g, but those for internal waves include gravity multiplied by the difference between the densities of the upper and the lower water layer and divided by their average.
The cause of internal waves may lie in the action of tidal forces (the period then equaling the tidal period) or in the action of a wind or pressure fluctuation. Sometimes a ship may cause internal waves (dead water) if there is a shallow brackish upper layer.