US 7957506 B2
A dual energy x-ray imaging system searches a moving automobile for concealed objects. Dual energy operation is achieved by operating an x-ray source at a constant potential of 100 KV to 150 KV, and alternately switching between two beam filters. The first filter is an atomic element having a high k-edge energy, such as platinum, gold, mercury, thallium, lead, bismuth, and thorium, thereby providing a low-energy spectrum. The second filter provides a high-energy spectrum through beam hardening. The low and high energy beams passing through the automobile are received by an x-ray detector. These detected signals are processed by a digital computer to create a steel suppressed image through logarithmic subtraction. The intensity of the x-ray beam is adjusted as the reciprocal of the measured automobile speed, thereby achieving a consistent radiation level regardless of the automobile motion. Accordingly, this invention provides images of organic objects concealed within moving automobiles without the detritus effects of overlying steel and automobile movement.
1. An apparatus for imaging an organic object contained within a metal enclosure, comprising:
an x-ray source for producing an x-ray beam passing through said metal enclosure;
a first beam filter for creating a low-energy x-ray spectrum; said first beam filter comprising an atomic element having a high k-edge energy;
a second beam filter for creating a high-energy x-ray spectrum;
a filter exchanger for alternately positioning said first beam filter and said second beam filter within said x-ray beam;
an x-ray detector for measuring an intensity of said x-ray beam exiting said metal enclosure;
a computer for converting a digitally represented signal into a steel suppressed digital image of said metal enclosure, the computer being programmed to:
calibrate the digitally represented signal to correct for multiple thicknesses of iron in the metal enclosure;
calibrate the digitally represented signal to correct for organic materials in the metal enclosure;
and further wherein the steel suppressed digital image is calculated by logarithmic subtraction;
whereby the image of said organic object is isolated from the interference of said metal enclosure.
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11. An apparatus for searching an automobile for security threats, comprising:
x-ray generating means for penetrating said automobile with x-ray radiation;
switching filter means for changing said x-ray radiation between a low-energy spectrum and a high-energy spectrum, wherein said low-energy spectrum is substantially determined by the k-edge energy of a high atomic number element;
x-ray detector means for converting the x-ray radiation that penetrates said automobile into a digitally represented signal;
a computer for converting said digitally represented signal into a steel suppressed digital image of said automobile, the computer being programmed to:
calibrate the digitally represented signal to correct for multiple thicknesses of iron in the automobile;
calibrate the digitally represented signal to correct for organic materials in the automobile; and
calculate the steel suppressed digital image by logarithmic subtraction.
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This application is a continuation of U.S. application Ser. No. 12/135,196, filed on Jun. 8, 2008 now U.S. Pat. No. 7,742,568, which claims the benefit of U.S. Provisional Application No. 60/943,040, filed on Jun. 9, 2007, both of which are incorporated herein by reference.
This invention relates to the x-ray imaging of automobiles to detect explosives, hidden persons, contraband, and other security threats.
Criminals and terrorists frequently conceal security threats in automobiles, such as explosives being transported into underground parking facilities for the purpose of destroying skyscrapers; illicit drugs being smuggled across borders; and illegal immigrants being brought into the country. Searching the automobile by visual inspection is time consuming and often ineffective. For instance, persons and contraband hidden in the dashboard or within the seats cannot be visually detected. X-ray inspection systems are now in use that can detect these security threats to some extent. These prior art systems use x-rays that are either transmitted through the automobile, or back scattered from the automobile, to form an image. The x-ray image is inspected by the security personnel to detect the presence of hidden security threats. However, prior art systems cannot readily distinguish the organic matter that comprises security threats from the steel forming the automobile. Further, this inability prevents the prior art systems from employing automated threat detection software programs. Still further, prior art systems are inefficient in producing contraband-revealing images at the ultra-low radiation doses that are acceptable for such security examination.
The present Invention overcomes these limitations of the prior art by providing an apparatus and method capable of acquiring dual-energy transmission x-ray images of automobiles passing through a security checkpoint. A linescan x-ray imaging system is provided in an archway configuration, whereby the automobile being examined drives slowly through a fan beam of x-ray radiation, with the driver and passengers remaining safely within the vehicle. High-energy and low-energy x-ray spectra are alternately selected for the fan beam of radiation, allowing x-ray images of the automobile to be acquired at two separate x-ray energies. The switching spectra are formed by operating the x-ray source at approximately 120 KV, and switching the beam filtration material between 6.35 mm thick copper and 0.762 mm thick bismuth sheets, or similar elements. Detection of the fan beam of radiation is accomplished with a linear array of detectors, such as Cadmium Tungstate or Caesium Iodide crystals mounted on photodiodes. The dual-energy images are converted to a steel-suppressed image and calibrated for measuring the thickness of organic material. The mass of each organic object in the automobile is subsequently calculated from the calibrated image by summing the pixel values over the projection of the object in the image. Organic masses greater than a specified threshold trigger an alert to security personnel for secondary inspection.
The present Invention operates with only a few microRem of radiation exposure to the driver and passengers of the automobile. This radiation exposure is regarded as trivial under radiation protection standards and appropriate for general purpose security examination. One aspect of the present Invention adjusts the output intensity of the x-ray source to match the speed of the automobile, thereby maintaining the highest image quality for the allowable radiation dose.
It is therefore the goal of the invention to provide an improved method and apparatus for detecting security threats and contraband concealed within automobiles passing through a security check point. Another goal of the invention is to facilitate the inspection of automobiles for the presence of explosives, hidden persons and contraband. Yet another goal is to provide a dual-energy imaging apparatus and method capable of detecting organic objects in the presence of overlying steel. A further goal is to provide a uniform radiation exposure to automobiles being examined regardless of the automobile's speed.
The x-ray beam 125 passes through the rotating chopper wheel 112 immediately upon exiting the x-ray source 110. The rotating chopper wheel 112 consists of a copper disk approximately 355.6 mm in diameter and 6.35 mm thick. A plurality of bismuth plates 115 are affixed to the rotating chopper wheel 112 at uniformly spaced angular increments. In a preferred embodiment, four to ten such bismuth plates 115 are used, with a thickness of about 0.762 mm, with the copper under each bismuth plate removed. This results in the x-ray beam 125 passing through either 6.35 mm copper or 0.752 mm bismuth at any one instant, as the rotating chopper wheel 112 is rotated around a vertical axis 116. Rotation of the rotating chopper wheel 112 is accomplished by an electric motor 111. The rate of rotation is adjusted to provide alternating exposures of about three milliseconds through the copper beam filter followed by three milliseconds through the bismuth beam filter. In a preferred embodiment having six bismuth plates 115 this corresponds to a rotation rate of 1,250 rpm.
As thus described, the combination of the x-ray assembly 103 and the linear slit collimator 113 forms a fan beam of x-rays 114, wherein the x-ray spectrum alternates every three milliseconds between 120 KV with 6.35 mm copper filtration and 120 KV with 0.762 mm bismuth filtration. The fan beam of x-rays 114 strikes the active detection area 130 of the linear array detector 104. The active detection area 130 is about 15.24 mm wide, slightly wider than the 15.113 mm total width of the fan x-ray beam 114. In one preferred embodiment the linear array detector 104 is folded into a “U” shape. As known in the art, such folded detectors provide the same operation as flat linear array detectors, but have the advantage of being more compact. The active detection area 130 comprises a plurality of detector elements. In one preferred embodiment, 320 detector elements are used with each measuring about 15.24 mm by 15.24 mm. Each detector element can be formed by one of the known detection techniques, such as scintillators mounted on photodiodes; scintillators mounted on photomultiplier tubes; or direct detection using germanium, silicon, or cadmium zinc telluride devices. In a preferred embodiment each detector element is a 15.24 mm×15.24 mm×3.81 mm thick scintillator crystal mounted on a 9.906 mm×9.906 mm photodiode. The scintillation crystal may be either CsI(Ti) or CdWO4. A white reflective paint is applied to all exposed surfaces of the crystal to maximize light transfer from the scintillator to the photodiode. Readout electronics of such detectors are known in the art.
The alignment of the linear slit collimator 113 is critical. Specifically, the focal spot of the x-ray source 110, the opening 122, and the active detection area 130, must remain coplanar. This alignment problem is aggravated by the automobile 202 being required to drive over the linear array detector 104, which may move the detector relative to the other assemblies. Accordingly, in one preferred embodiment a method and apparatus is provided to automatically align the linear slit collimator 113. Linear actuators 120 are affixed to the extreme ends of the linear slit collimator 113 as shown in
An important and key aspect of the Invention is its ability to search automobiles in a manner that is safe for the vehicle's occupants. The issue of radiation safety has been specifically addressed in the ANSI/HPS N43-17 standard entitled “Radiation Safety For Personnel Security Screening Systems Using X-rays”, as well as a report prepared by the National Council on Radiation Protection and Measurements entitled “Presidential Report on Radiation Protection Advice: Screening of Humans for Security Purposes Using Ionizing Radiation Scanning Systems.” These documents clearly and explicitly put forth that radiation exposures of less than ten microRem effective dose are acceptable for general purpose security screening. Accordingly, in a preferred embodiment of the Invention the radiation received by any driver or passenger is less than ten microRem effective dose, or any future value determined acceptable under ANSI/HPS N43-17. Under accepted radiation protection guidelines, infrequent effective radiation doses in the microRem range are trivial, do not need to be considered for purposes of radiation protection, and efforts are not warranted to reduce the radiation exposure.
On the other hand, using substantially less than ten microRem per examination results in a reduced ability to detect security threats in automobiles. For a constant intensity of an x-ray beam, the radiation dose is proportional to the amount of time spent in the beam. Therefore, slower moving automobiles will receive a higher dose than faster moving ones, for a fixed intensity beam. Prior art automobile scanning systems insure that the ten microRem level is met by reducing the intensity of the x-ray beam to a level that insures that the slowest moving automobiles meet the limit. In turn, this results in normal and fast moving vehicles being exposed to substantially lower radiation levels, resulting in poor detection of security threats. A preferred embodiment of the present Invention overcomes this limitation by adjusting the intensity of the x-ray beam to match the speed of the automobile.
The effective radiation dose received by occupants of the automobile is calculated as follows. From standard references known in the art, an x-ray tube operating at 120 KV and 2 mA produces a radiation exposure of 0.009 Roentgen per second at a distance of 2133.60 mm, the approximate center of the automobile. The conversion between Roentgen and Rem of effective dose is approximately unity at the x-ray energies used in the Invention. The exposure time for any location in the automobile is 0.006 seconds. This exposure time is broken into two halves, corresponding to the two energies needed to make the dual-energy measurement. During both of these halves, the intensity of the beam is reduced by a factor of about ten by filtration material inserted into the beam, as needed to shape the spectra for dual energy imaging. This results in a nominal effective dose of 0.009 Roentgens/sec×0.006 sec×1 Rem/Roentgen×0.1=5.4 microRem effective dose. This effective dose will increase closer to the x-ray source; however, in no event will any person receive more than 10 microRem effective dose per scan.
Dual-energy x-ray imaging has long been used in security applications, for example, airport-type baggage scanners. As known in the art, an x-ray beam passing through an object is reduced in intensity according to:
That is, the logarithmic division measures the ratio of the high to the low-energy mass attenuation coefficients of the object being examined, which is unique for each element. For instance, carbon has a ratio of about 1.28; aluminum 2.8; and iron 6.2. This allows airport-type baggage scanners to identify different atomic elements and display them in different colors on the display monitor.
While useful for inspecting airport baggage, this technique is unworkable with the steel construction used in automobiles. First, the goals of the examination are different. Airport baggage scanners are designed to present an image display to the operator, wherein the color of each object reflects its atomic number or effective atomic number. For instance, the low atomic number elements in a water bottle or explosive appear in one color, while the steel in a handgun appears in another. However, it is pointless in automobile inspection to detect metal, since it is known beforehand that large amounts of metal are used in the construction of the vehicle. Rather, the need in automobile inspection is to detect and classify non-metal objects contained in the vehicle, in spite of the extensive overlying metal.
Second, the energy of the low-energy beam is extremely critical when imaging through the steel present in automobiles.
On the other hand, the energy of the low-energy beam cannot be higher than about 90 keV. Discriminating between two different materials, steel and water in the present case, requires that the mass attenuation coefficients of the two materials be significantly different at the energy of the low-energy beam, and relatively similar at the energy of the high-energy beam. In
Taking the above two limitations together, the energy of the low-energy x-beam must be placed in the narrow window of about 70 keV to 90 keV to be functional for the inspection of automobiles. If placed at a lower energy the beam will not be able to penetrate the steel of the automobile. If placed at a higher energy insufficient dual-energy information can be obtained to distinguish steel from organic materials. The techniques of the prior art, such as used in airport-type baggage scanners, do not and cannot achieve placement of the low-energy beam in this critical window.
The present Invention operates within this narrow window by using specific technique factors for generating the x-ray beam Specifically, the low-energy filter material must have a high k-edge energy, such as platinum, gold, mercury, thallium, lead, bismuth, and thorium. In addition the x-ray tube must be operated with an electron energy that is greater than the k-edge energy, but less than the k-edge energy plus about 50 keV. This approximately corresponds to operating the x-ray tube between 100 KV and 150 KV. In a preferred embodiment, the present invention uses a bismuth filter with the x-ray tube operated at 120 KV.
Third, the logarithmic subtraction used in baggage scanners provide an incorrect measurement when imaging through overlying steel. As an example, consider an explosive hidden in the trunk of an automobile. Logarithmic subtraction reports the effective atomic number of the combination of the explosive and the overlying metal. That is, the presence of the overlying steel corrupts the measurement. Further, this corruption is extreme since the attenuation of steel is far higher than the attenuation of organic material.
The present Invention overcomes these limitations of the prior art by providing an apparatus and method of accurately measuring the mass of organic objects concealed within the metal of an automobile. Operating the x-ray source 110 at a constant potential of approximately 120 KV, while switching filtration materials between about 6.35 mm of copper and 0.762 mm of bismuth, produces the two spectra shown in
Another important aspect of the present Invention is the use of “logarithmic subtraction”, as opposed to the “logarithmic division” previously described and used in prior art security systems. The mathematics of logarithmic subtraction are explained as follows, using the simplified example of mono-energetic x-ray beams. The following equations represent the high and low-energy beams passing through an object composed of both iron and water:
In (10) and (11) the parameters k and r are shown to simply be constants that depend on the fixed mass attenuation coefficients and density. Equation (9) shows the goal of the logarithmic subtraction; the thickness of the water can be calculated from the measured values and known constants, regardless of the thickness of metal present. That is, applying equation (9) to each pixel creates an electronic image where the value of each pixel is the thickness of the water, with the corrupting effect of overlying metal completely removed.
The above mathematical analysis assumes that mono-energetic x-ray beams are used, making all of the mass attenuation coefficients a fixed value. However, conventional x-ray sources produce polyenergetic x-ray beams that change their energy spectra as they pass through material, making the value of the mass attenuation coefficients a variable of the equations. This effect can be seen in
1. Correct for DC Offset
With the x-ray beam not energized, each detector element in the active detection area 130 will output a slightly different level of electronic signal as a result in variations in the electronic components. In a preferred embodiment, the value of the signal from each detector element is measured and stored with the x-ray beam turned off. All future measurements from the Invention are then modified by subtracting the stored values from the measured value to correct for the detector DC offset.
2. Convert to Logarithmic Domain
With no object in the fan beam 114, the value of the signal from each detector element is measured and stored with the low-energy beam turn on, referred to hereafter as XL0. In a similar fashion, the value of the signal from each detector element is measured and stored with the high-energy beam turn on, referred to hereafter as XH0. All future measurements from the Invention are then converted into a logarithmic attenuation. In the previous discussion for equations (7) and (8) these attenuations were expressed separately for the high and low-energy beams. However, in a preferred embodiment the calibration procedure is more easily carried out by calculating the sum and difference attenuations, as follows:
As explained previously, the attenuation of the x-ray beams through iron cannot be expressed by a single constant. This step determines the multipoint calibration data needed to correct for this effect. In the preferred embodiment this is accomplished by acquiring images of four different thickness of iron sheets, ⅛″ (3.175 mm), ¼″ (6.35 mm), ⅜″ (9.525 mm) and ½″ (12.70 mm). The value of XSUM and XDIF is measured for each thickness, taken as the average of the multitude of pixels that correspond to the object in each respective image.
As also previously explained, the attenuation of the x-ray beams through water can essentially be represented by a single constant. The calibration procedure of a preferred embodiment determines this constant by taking an image of a 101.60 mm thick container of water affixed to a ⅛″ (3.175 mm) thick sheet of iron. The values of XSUM and XDIF for this calibration phantom are measured from the acquired image. The value of the calibration constant, k, is then calculated as:
The nominal value of k is 9.0932 mm per dB. The value of k, plus the values in the iron correction factor array, ICF[ ], form the data needed to calibrate the operation of the Invention.
4. Measure the Thickness of Organic Material in an Acquired Image
Each pixel in the image of a scanned automobile, represented by a value of XSUM and XDIF, is converted into the thickness of water corresponding to that pixel by:
This method of calibrating the dual-energy information achieves an accuracy of +/−3.81 mm, over a 0 to 304.80 mm range of water thickness, and 0 to ⅜″ (9.525 mm) range of iron thickness.
A preferred embodiment of the method of inspecting a vehicle will now be described and further explained in
The second step is to calculate a steel suppressed image 192. This step is carried out using the previously described logarithmic subtraction. This step may be carried out analytically, as described in equations (5)-(11). Alternatively, it may be carried out through the use of calibrated lookup tables, such as discussed in conjunction with
The third step is to calibrate the steel suppressed image 193. In the preferred embodiment this step is carried out multiplying each pixel in the steel suppressed image by a calibration factor, referred to as “k”, in equations (14) and (15). At the completion of this step, each pixel in the calibrated steel suppressed image is a direct measure of the thickness of water, organic, or other non-steel objects present in the vehicle at the location corresponding to the pixel.
The fourth step is to determine object boundaries 194. The goal of this step is to identify groups of pixels in the calibrated steel suppressed image that correspond to each of the water, organic, or other non-steel objects present in the vehicle. In the preferred embodiment this comprises thresholding the image to eliminate all regions that have a measured thickness of less than about 25.40 mm. After thresholding, groups of pixels are identified in the image that are connected. In a preferred embodiment, computer algorithms known in the art as “blob analysis” are used to further refine the object boundaries of each connected group of pixels to most closely correspond to actual objects contained in the vehicle. At the completion of this step, the pixels that correspond to each object in the vehicle are identified and reside as digital data in a computer.
The fifth step is to calculate the mass of each object from its boundaries and the calibrated image 195. The value of each pixel in the calibrated image, calculated in step 3, is the measured thickness of the corresponding object at that pixel location. The boundaries of each object determined in step 4 provide the projected area of the object. In a preferred embodiment this step 195 comprises calculating the mass of each object by summing the values of all pixels contained within the object boundaries, and multiplying by the assumed density of the object. In a preferred embodiment all organic material is assumed to have the characteristics of water, with the density of 1 gm/cm3. The result of this step is a list of masses associated with each object in the vehicle, held as digital data in a computer. The assumption that all organic material has the characteristics of water results in an error that is not significant for the purposes and goals of the Invention.
The sixth step is the decision: “Does the mass of any object exceed a threshold?” 196. This step comprises a computer comparing each of the object masses calculated in step five with a predetermined mass threshold. This mass threshold depends on the application where the Invention is being deployed. For example, a border checkpoint may set the threshold to 22.680 kg to detect the presence of persons hidden in the vehicle. In comparison, the entrance to the underground parking facility of a skyscraper may set the threshold to 226.80 kg to detect car bombs.
The seventh step is to trigger an alarm 197, if the answer determined in step six is “yes.” In the preferred embodiment this alarm consists of an audible sound in the area where a security officer is stationed, along with a visual presentation on a computer monitor indicating the location in the scanned image where the triggering object is located.
The above specific descriptions and embodiments have been made to explain the Invention and those skilled in the art will immediately recognize that other embodiments and modifications are within the scope of the Invention. For instance: The x-ray source may use a fixed or rotating target; operate with other combinations and variations of technique factors; be cooled by air, water, or oil; and other embodiments that are known in the art. The x-ray detector may comprise other scintillation crystals or screens; use photomultiplier tubes, other electron multiplication devices, or other light detection technologies known in the art; be mounted in other configurations to prevent damage to the components; or use other x-ray detectors known in the art. Switching the beam filtration may be done by a linear actuator, flat wheel, cylinder, or other mechanical assembly. Modulation of the intensity of the x-ray beam may be accomplished by varying the x-ray tube beam current, KV, or mechanically placing filters in the beam. Computer calculations may be carried out in alternative ways known in the art to achieve the same goals. The selection of beam filtration materials may extend to elements and compounds that have similar characteristics to those stated for the preferred embodiment of copper and bismuth. For instance, copper may be replaced by iron, nickel, zinc, silver, molybdenum, or tin, or combinations of these elements. Bismuth may be replaced by, for instance, platinum, gold, mercury, thallium, lead, bismuth, or thorium, or combinations of these elements. Calibration of the Invention may be accomplished by phantoms constructed of steel instead of iron, since iron and steel are essentially equivalent in x-ray characteristics. Further, calibration of the Invention may be made in thicknesses of organic materials other than water, such as plastics or explosives. Variations in the geometric size of the Invention may be made, such as making it large enough to examine trucks and buses. Although particular embodiments of the Invention have been described in detail for the purpose of illustration, various other modifications may be made without departing from the spirit and scope of the Invention.
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