- NATIONAL ECONOMIC POLICIES
- INTERNATIONAL TRADE
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- STOCK EXCHANGES
- LABOUR-MANAGEMENT RELATIONS
- CONSUMER AFFAIRS
In 1995 the world economy experienced another year of robust growth. According to International Monetary Fund (IMF) estimates, total output expanded by about 3.5%, largely unchanged from the previous year’s level, which in turn was the best performance since 1988. This strong overall performance, however, disguised a pronounced slowdown in the developed countries as a group. (For Real Gross Domestic Products of Selected OECD Countries, see Table.)
The pace of economic expansion in the developed countries slowed to an estimated 2.5% in 1995 from the previous year’s 3.1%. Measures taken in 1994, which included preemptive rises in interest rates to prevent an upturn in inflation and higher taxes to rein in budget deficits, contributed to this moderation, as did turbulence on foreign exchange markets. Growth moderated most in those countries where the recovery had been strong and long established. Thus, U.S. growth fell back to 2.5% (4.1% in 1994) as interest-sensitive sectors, including residential investment and consumer consumption, reacted adversely early in the year before recovering later on. Because of its close links with the U.S., Canada experienced a similar moderation in growth. In Australia and New Zealand the economic growth rate also slowed sharply. In Europe, with the exception of the U.K., the slowdown was fairly mild. In the U.K. the rate of economic growth moderated from 4% in 1994 to 2.7% in 1995. The Japanese economy did not pull out of the long economic slowdown, despite the government’s introduction of several packages to stimulate activity in both 1994 and 1995. The deflationary effect of the appreciating yen prevailed for most of the year, as did a lack of confidence in the financial system since the high (often overvalued) prices of real estate and other assets of the 1980s collapsed. Economic output in Japan in 1995 expanded at 0.5%, the same rate as in 1994.
Once again, the economies of the less developed countries (LDCs) grew much faster than those of the developed countries. Total growth at 6% was twice as fast as in the developed countries. As this growth rate exceeded the birthrate, there was a small gain in living standards. Regionally, Asia, led by China, experienced the fastest economic growth. The economic growth rate in Latin America slowed rapidly as a result of the financial crisis in Mexico (see SPOTLIGHT: Mexico, the Painful Changes), which led to the introduction of stabilization measures in the region. By contrast, there was a welcome pickup in economic activity rates in Africa and the Middle East.
Exchange-rate instability was an important development that produced a negative impact in the early part of the year. The Mexican crisis, which started in December 1994 with the collapse of the peso, had repercussions outside the region. Initially, there was an outflow of capital funds from many LDCs as the weakening of investor confidence led to reassessment of investment risk in those countries. This was accompanied by wider but short-lived exchange-rate volatility among the exchange rates of LDCs.
The Mexican crisis coincided with concern in the international markets about the large balance of payments deficit in the U.S. and uncertainty relating to the future direction of interest rates in the U.S., Japan, and Germany. This led to a sharp decline in the value of the U.S. dollar against the Japanese yen and the Deutsche Mark during the first half of 1995. The yen appreciated by 15% against the dollar and the Deutsche Mark by 9%. The other European currencies that were closely tied to the Deutsche Mark appreciated similarly. However, as a result of coordinated intervention by central banks and lower interest rates in Japan, the U.S., and Germany, the misalignment of the key currencies had been adjusted by the autumn. By that time the yen, for example, which had strengthened from 100 yen to the dollar to 80 yen to the dollar, had receded back to the level it had at the beginning of 1995. (for effective exchange rates of selected currencies, see Graph V.)
As economic growth slowed, central banks in North America and Germany changed their previously counterinflationary stance and allowed short-term interest rates (Graph III) to fall. (For long-term rates, see Graph IV.) The German Bundesbank cut its discount rate by 0.5% as early as March. Japan followed suit by cutting its interest rates twice to curb the strength of the yen. A 0.75% cut in April was followed by a further 0.5% reduction in September. This took the Japanese interest rates to a record-low 0.5%. In the U.S. the Federal Reserve Board (Fed) cut the Fed funds rate by 0.25% to 5.75% in July, which enabled a similar reduction in the banks’ prime rate to 8.75%. On December 19 the Fed announced another 0.25% cut, and the prime fell accordingly to end the year at 8.5%.
In the U.K. a 0.5% increase in February was the last increase in this cycle and meant interest rates peaked at 6.75%. A faster-than-expected slowdown in the British economy led to a change of attitude in the summer and heightened expectations of an interest-rate cut early in 1996. In contrast to the relaxation in monetary policy, many governments in the developed world continued to reduce their budget deficits. This meant another year of tight government spending and tax reforms instead of tax giveaways. Partly as a result of the prior year’s measures to rein in public spending and higher revenues arising from taxation and continued economic recovery, budget deficits in many countries narrowed. In the U.S. the deficit for the 1994-95 fiscal year (ended October) narrowed to $164 billion, the smallest gap since 1988-89 ($203 billion the year before). The administration of Pres. Bill Clinton bowed to pressure from the Republican-controlled Congress, however, and agreed to the principle of a balanced budget over the next seven years, although the exact details of how this was to be achieved remained unresolved at year’s end.
In the U.K. progress was slower than expected, and the public-sector deficit narrowed to £29 billion, £7 billion less than the year before but £ 6 billion above the target set in November 1994. This slippage effectively deferred the projected date of a balanced budget by a year to 1997. An austerity package of reduced public spending, higher taxes, and social security reforms proposed by French Prime Minister Alain Juppé caused widespread discontent and strikes. A key aim of this package was to reduce the public-sector deficit to 3% of gross domestic product (GDP) by 1997 in order to meet the convergence criterion stipulated in the Maastricht Treaty. Good progress was made in Germany as well as in other countries, including Italy, Canada, Spain, and The Netherlands, in reducing public-sector deficits. Japan once again went against the trend. To stimulate the flat economy, the government announced three packages containing a mixture of tax cuts and higher public spending. To pay for the proposed spending, the government issued additional bonds. This added to the public-sector deficit, which was heading for 4% of GDP in 1995-96.
Employment growth was disappointing in 1995, and the rate at which jobs were created slowed in both North America and Europe. Although there was a reduction in the average unemployment rate (see Table) in countries belonging to the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD), to 7.9% from 8.1% in 1994, this meant that 33.6 million people were searching for work in OECD countries during 1995. The official figures excluded those who failed to register as unemployed because of poor prospects or because they believed they were too old or lacked necessary skills.
In Japan the unemployment rate, at 3.2%, remained the lowest among developed countries, but it was up from the 1994 rate of 3%. In the U.S. continuing economic recovery reduced the unemployment rate, which at the end of 1995 stood at 5.6%, compared with 5.8% a year earlier. Europe still had the highest rate of unemployment and the slowest job-creation rate. The average unemployment rate in Europe, at 11.1%, barely improved from the previous year’s 11.3%. The highest unemployment rate was in Spain, at about 22%, only a slight improvement on the 24% rate in 1994.
Inflationary pressures remained subdued in most regions and countries. In OECD countries, with the exception of Turkey and Mexico, average inflation for 1995 was about 2.5%, compared with 2.2% in 1994. (For Consumer Prices in OECD Countries, see Table.) No significant upturn was expected in the near future. The median inflation rate moderated to 8% in the LDCs (11.5% in 1994). By region, Latin America, the Middle East, and Europe continued to experience above-average inflation rates. (For inflation rates in selected countries, see Graph I.)
World trade remained buoyant during 1995 and expanded at a rapid pace of 8%, close to the rate in 1994. The strength of world trade was largely due to increasing trade between the developed countries and recovery of trade in the former communist countries in Europe. Large regional trade surpluses and deficits remained. Despite some improvement in the U.S. because of the economic slowdown and currency appreciation, a large deficit of about $200 billion remained. In Japan the trade surplus narrowed in yen terms but was largely unchanged in dollar terms at about $145 billion. (For industrial production in selected OECD countries, see Graph II.)
With the exception of Africa, the IMF expected the debt burdens of the LDCs to remain manageable. As a result of a large proportion of capital inflows being non-debt-creating, the overall debt levels of LDCs was rising gently. Although in absolute terms their debt was rising, as a proportion of exports of goods and services, it was declining.