Penelope Kochanski Bio lab practical study guide Lab 1: Microscopy: Basic rules: -it must be handled and used carefully at all times -always pick up the microscope at the arm Be able to identify the parts of the microscope: -arm: supports the body tube and is the part of the microscope that you grasp to carry it -base: gives the microscope a firm steady support and is a part that you place the other hand on when carrying -ocular lenses: also called the eye pieces. Magnify an object ten times (10x). They are movable. The left ring had a ring that can be turned to change the focus. -objective lenses: magnifies the object by the factor marked on a particular lens. Our microscopes have four lenses: low power-scan: (4x), low power objective: (10x), high power objective: (40x), and oil immersion objective: (100x) -nosepiece: the revolving portion of the microscope to which the objective lenses are attached -fine focus adjustment: moves the stage up and down slightly to the correct position. This will enable the specimen to come into sharp focus. -platform stage: the stage holds the slide in place with the use of clips. It?s also equipped with gears, which enable you to moce the slide without touching it -course focus adjustment: moves the stage up and down to approximately the right position so that the specimen is in focus. This knob is only used with the 4x or 10x lenses -condenser: focuses the light on te object to be viewed -iris diaphragm: controls the amount of light entering the microscope -light source: this is the adjustable lamp located below the microscope?s base. It can be adjusted Be able to determine the total magnification at which you are viewing an object: -multiply ocular (10x) times objective (4x;10x;40x;100x) Scientific method -duh Be able to use a dichotomous key -allows user to determine the identity of items in the natural world Lab Two Know and be able to recognize the four basic types of fossils -hard parts remain: when the parts of the organism it self remain intact (tooth enamel, shell of a mollusk) -mineral replacement: where minerals have replaced the original animal or plant material -organism preserved intact: *self explanatory* -trace fossil: the impression an organism made in a soft substrate that has been preserved Radiometric dating: It is based on the face that some minerals have radioactive isotopes that change through time to other minerals through a process called radioactive decay. The amount time it takes for half of a parent (radioactive) isotope to turn into it?s non-radioactive daughter isotope is called it?s half- life. Lab Three Understand how to and be able to calculate: -mean: sum/number of samples -median: number smack dab in the middle -variation: (mean-first measurement)^2-(mean-second measurement)^2.? / (number of samples - 1) Understand the differences between process and sample variation Lab Four Understand the theory of natural selection -it is the process through which adaptations are achieved. It is defined as the differential reproductive success of individuals exhibiting particular traits (phenotypes) in a local population as a consequence of interactions of organisms with their physical and biotic environments. Recognize morphological, physiological and behavioral adaptation: -there might be adaptation that better enable an organism to: *survive within the limits of it?s physical environment *maximize it?s ability to obtain nutrients *to out-compete or avoid competition with other organisms that share resources in the same community *to procure viable mating or some other mechanism or reproductive success Be able to identify an animal?s diet type from it?s skull: -carnivores: Large slicing canines and long roots on their teeth. The canines are called carnassials teeth and are used to cut and chew off chunks of meat. they also have front facing eyes, heavy skulls and jaws that are strong but that can only open and shut, not move side to side. -herbivores: Have tall molar teeth that are very broad. These molars have flat upper surfaces sometimes with ridges on them to help grind plant material. The herbivore lacks canines entirely and the incisors may be clipper-like, for use in cutting off plan stems. Squirrels use similar incisors to force nuts open. -insectivores: Have a mouthful of sharp little teeth that are similar in size and shape. These are used in seizing and crushing hard-shelled insects and other small animals like worms. -omnivores: Have sharp, long canines for puncturing and grabbing their food. Wide molar teeth with low bumpy crowns are often present to handle both the chewing of meat and grinding plant material. Lab Five Understand the food web (page 64 in lab book) Know what trophic levels, functional roles, autotrophs, heterotrophs, omnivores, herbivores, and carnivores are and be able to determine them in a food web: -trophic level 1 -> producer -trophic level 2 -> primary consumer -trophic level 3 -> secondary consumer -trophic level 4 -> tertiary consumer -trophic level 5 -> quaternary consumer Lab Six Understand the difference between logistic and exponential growth -exponential: when an organism is introduced into a favorable habitat and has the ability to grow limitless -logistic: as the population size approaches the carrying capacity of the environment, the growth rate levels off Key concepts: -competitive exclusion principle: No two species can coexist if the occupy the same habitat in the same place, utilizing the same resources -fundamental niche V. realized niche: -character displacement: Lab Seven Know and be able to identify the major divisions of this kingdom -eubacteria: ?true bacteria?. Can be divided into three groups: *coccus: round shaped *bacills: rod shaped *spirillum: spiral shaped -cynobacteria: (blue-green algae). A group of prokaryotes that are photosynthetic and can exist as single cells organisms or occur in filaments covered by gelatinous sheath. -archaebacteria: ancient bacteria Understand the purpose, process and meaning of gram staining -purpose: stains enable one to distinguish between bacteria and their surrounding environment based on chemical differences in their cell walls. -process: *gram positive bacteria will retain the crystal violet ^archaebacteria *gram negative bacteria will retain the safranin ^these include cynobacteria and eubacteria Lab Eight Know basic characteristics of protists -first eukaryotes -diffusion -use of macromolecular aggregates -organelle systems -heterotrophic (protozoans) -autotrophic (algae) Intermediate disturbance hypothesis: -biodiversity is at it?s highest when disturbance isn?t too frequent or not at all Lab Nine DNA: structure of DNA and base pairing -double helix *C -> G * T -> A Hardy-Weinburg: - p^2 + 2pq + q^2 *p=frequent dominant allele *q=resesive allele Genotype: the actual genes (rr Rr RR) Phenotype: how the genes portray themselves?(blue eyes, blonde hair) Lab Ten For each phylum we looked at know: -the name of each phylum, name of each animal, morphological features: *poifera: -sponge -main opening, pores, spicules(provide structure and ward off predators) *cnidaria: -sea anemones -spines -hydra -tentacles -mouth *platy helminthes: -flat worms -two eye spots (sensitive to light only) -shape of body -head *nematoda: -round worms -slender worm shape *mullusca: -clams -shell (hinged dorsally) -mantle ^consisting of a foot, heart, gills, siphons, stomach, mouth, ligaments, adductor muscle, palps, intestines *echinoderm ata: -starfish -five arms -podia (the little bumps on the outside of the arms) *chordata: -squid -skin -body shape -tentacles -fins -eyes -mouth -gill slits Understand levels of organization: -cell -> tissue -> organ -> organism Lab Eleven Know the difference between: -mitosis V. meiosis: *mitosis: one single division A mother cell can either be haploid or diploid The number of chromosomes remains the same after division No paring of homolog chromosomes No DNA crossing over The centromeres are spilt The genotype of the daughter cells are identical to mother *meiosis: two divisions A mother cell is always diploid The number of cells goes from two chromosome mother cell to a one chromosome daughter cells Complete pairing of all homolog chromosomes At least one crossing over per chromosome The centromeres do not split until anaphase two The genotype differs from mother cell to daughter cells -haploid V. diploid cells: *Diploid cells are different from haploid cells. Diploid is having two sets of homologous chromosomes. Diploid cells have two set of daughter cells meaning they have 23 pairs of chromosomes (46 chromosomes). *Haploid is having one set of daughter cells. (4 daughter cells) Haploid cells have one set of daughter cells which means they have 23 chromosomes -saprophyte V. gametophyte: *saprophyte -produces spores *gametophyte -The gametophyte produces male or female gametes (or both), by mitosis. Be able to distinguish between monocots and dicots: -monocots: 1 seed leaf Parallel-veined leaves Primary vascular bundles scattered Root system adventitious Floral parts in 3?s -dicots: 2 seed leaves Net-veined leaves Primary vascular bundles in a ring Root system primary adventitious Floral parts in 4?s or 5?s Be able to ID lichen and what comprises it: -Some lichens have the aspect of leaves (foliose lichens); others cover the substrate like a crust (crustose lichens) (illustration, right), others such as the genus Ramalina adopt shrubby forms (fruticose lichens), and there are gelatinous lichens such as the genus Collema -green algae and cynobacterium Recognize and ID pine male and female pinecones -male: males cones are smaller and located at the tree tops -female: female cones are larger and found farther down (have spines coming out of them) Be able to use the fruit key in the lab manual Be familiar with the parts of the flower (135) -pistil: contains the stigma, style, ovule and ovary -stamen: contains the anther and filament *stigma: top of the style *style: the main middle thing sticking out * ovule: inside of the ovary *ovary: at the base of the style *anther: where the pollen is *filament: stem of the anther -petal -sepal: green at the base of the petal -receptacle: base of the actual flower -pedicel: stem Know the major characteristics of fungi and the four major groups we looked at: -plant like call walls -lack chlorophyll -usually very thin and long -connected end to end -reproduce asexually or sexually *ascomycota: called sac or cup fungi *deuteromycota: *basidiomycota: look like mushrooms *lichens: two organisms in one (algae and fungus) Arthropods: recognize head, thorax, abdomen and exoskeleton
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