5 Management of patients on antiretroviral treatmentBefore you begin this unit, please take the STARTINGcorresponding test at the end of the book toassess your knowledge of the subject matter. You ANTIRETROVIRALshould redo the test after you’ve worked through TREATMENTthe unit, to evaluate what you have learned. 5-1 What are the goals of Objectives antiretroviral treatment? 1. The patient should feel well and have few When you have completed this unit you illnesses related to HIV infection. should be able to: 2. The CD4 count should increase and • Describe the first treatment visit. remain above the baseline count. • List the schedule of follow-up visits. 3. The viral load should become undetectable • Explain what is done at each visit. and remain undetectable. • List what blood tests are needed. Antiretroviral treatment reduces the • Define treatment success and failure. multiplication of HIV and this allows the • Manage patients on successful treatment. immune system to recover. As a result the • Manage patients with failed treatment. patient loses the symptoms and signs of HIV • Promote excellent adherence. infection and is able to return to a normal • Explain the dangers of drug resistance. lifestyle. Antiretroviral treatment therefore • Describe the immune reconstitution decreases both the morbidity and mortality syndrome. related to HIV. Antiretroviral treatment is best started at an antiretroviral clinic. The main goal of antiretroviral treatment is to get the patient well again. NOTE An extended programme of free antiretroviral treatment was started in South Africa in 2004.
72 ADULT HIV5-2 What is an antiretroviral clinic? Each person in the team makes sure that the patient understands which medicine to take,This is a clinic where antiretroviral treatment is how much and when. They also check thatstarted and managed for the first few months. the patient knows the side effects of the drugsPatients are referred to the antiretroviral clinic to be taken and the importance of excellentwhen they have met the criteria for treatment. adherence.An antiretroviral clinic is staffed by doctors andnurses who have had special training in the useof antiretroviral drugs and the management of 5-4 What is a patient-carriedpatients on these drugs. HIV treatment card? This is a treatment card kept by the patient5-3 What is the first antiretroviral (similar to the antenatal cards and Road-to-treatment visit? Health cards). It includes all the important information about the patient’s management.This is the visit when antiretroviral treatment Patient-carried cards are a very important toolis started (i.e. commencement visit). Patients in helping patients become responsible for theirshould already have been prepared for care. It also improves communication betweenantiretroviral treatment at two screening visits. health facilities. Managing HIV infection likeA decision would already have been made that any other disease helps to reduce stigma.the patient is ‘treatment ready’ and baselineblood tests done. A final check is made thatthe patient is fully prepared for treatment. 5-5 What antiretroviral regimen isAt the first antiretroviral treatment visit the used for first-line treatment?following should be done: Almost all patients are started on the first-line1. A second count of co-trimoxazole tablets is combination of TDF, 3TC and nevirapine. done to assess adherence. Efavirenz may be used instead of nevirapine2. The importance of excellent adherence is for patients on TB treatment or if patients have again stressed by the counsellor. abnormal liver functions. Some patients who3. The patient sees the doctor or nurse for the have already been started on d4T, and who final instructions and support. A detailed haven’t experienced side effects, may remain description of the drugs and their doses is on d4T. given using a treatment chart. A graphic treatment chart is very useful and should Treatment is almost always started with the first- be given to each patient. line combination of antiretroviral drugs.4. The patient should be given a patient- carried treatment card.5. The patient’s details are entered into the 5-6 What other medication will be given? antiretroviral treatment register. Co-trimoxazole prophylaxis will be continued6. An HIV summary record is started until the CD4 count is above 200 cells/μl. This which will be kept by the clinic and usually implies that prophylaxis is continued updated by the doctor’s notes at each visit. for at least the first six months of antiretroviral Examination notes from the two screening treatment. visits should be included.7. The instructions and dosing are reinforced 5-7 How often are these patients by the nurse. The instructions must be seen at the antiretroviral clinic? clearly written on the pill container with a permanent marker. Usually patients are seen at the antiretroviral8. The patient is given one month’s supply of clinic at four, eight and 12 weeks after starting drugs by the pharmacist. treatment.
MANAGEMENT OF PATIENTS ON ANTIRETROVIRAL TREATMENT 73Patients who are taking nevirapine have an 4. A pill count is done before the patient seesextra visit two weeks after starting treatment the doctor.as they need ALT blood checks. The dose of 5. The patient is counselled.nevirapine is increased from the starting dose 6. Routine blood samples are taken.of one tablet daily to one tablet twice daily at 7. Family planning is discussed with women.the two week visit. 5-11 How often are the medicines5-8 How often should education given by the clinic?and counselling be offered? Monthly to 3-monthly. A missed visit forAt every clinic visit. The importance of medication suggests poor adherence. Whenexcellent adherence and support must always medicine is collected, the patient shouldbe stressed. Patients must have an opportunity also be seen by a nurse who will assessto ask questions or discuss problems. adherence and ask about side effects. Excellent adherence must be promoted at every visit. The antiretroviral treatment register must The patient should be counselled at every visit. be completed each time medication is provided. This is a book which records all the5-9 Who are the members of the multi- antiretroviral medicine supplied.disciplinary team at the antiretroviral clinic?1. The doctor, who should take a history and 5-12 What blood tests are routinely perform a general examination at the first done during the first three months treatment visit, and again if necessary at of first-line treatment? follow-up visits. 1. Patients receiving nevirapine should2. The nurse, who should see the patient to have their serum ALT (alanine amino complete the treatment register and take transferase) done at two, four and eight the necessary blood samples. The nurse weeks after starting treatment as they have should also check adherence at every visit. a higher risk of hepatitis. The blood sample3. The counsellor/educator, who should see for ALT must reach the laboratory as the patient at every visit. soon as possible. Patients must be recalled4. The pharmacist, who should provide the immediately if the results are abnormal. antiretroviral drugs and advise the patient 2. ALT is usually only done if patients taking on how to take them every time medicines efavirenz have symptoms of hepatitis. are dispensed. 3. Creatinine clearance monitoring is done atTrained lay educators and counsellors are very 1 and 3 months for patients on TDF.important members of the health team. NOTE The normal range for serum ALT is 5 to 40 u/l. Any patient with an ALT above five times the upper limit of normal (200 u/l)FOLLOW-UP VISITS requires an immediate review. There is an increased risk of drug induced hepatitis in patients with hepatitis B or C co-infection.5-10 What should be doneat the follow-up visits? 5-13 What monitoring for side effects is1. A history is taken for adherence, side needed for other antiretroviral drugs? effects and any other problems. Clinical monitoring without blood tests is2. A general examination is completed. adequate for 3TC, efavirenz and d4T provided3. The patient is weighed. the patient is clinically well.
74 ADULT HIV5-14 How should patients be load is usually expressed as RNA copies/mlfollowed up after three months? (which is the same as copies/ml).Most of the side effects will have cleared bythree months (12 weeks). Patients should The viral load is a measure of the amount of HIValso be into the routine of taking their in the blood.antiretroviral drugs regularly. Few problemsare expected after three months therefore NOTE The viral load is the concentrationpatients, will then only be seen by a doctor of free virus in the plasma. In its free formsix-monthly. They still collect their medicines HIV is an RNA virus. Therefore the RNA PCRevery month. test is used to measure the viral load.Some antiretroviral clinics are able to followtheir patients for six months after starting 5-18 What is the range of viral load results?treatment. However, some patients can be People with HIV infection can have a viralreferred back to the HIV clinic sooner. load ranging from less than 50 copies/ml to several million copies/ml. A viral load of less than 50 copies/ml is regarded as ‘undetectable’.MONITORING THERESPONSE TO ANTI- 5-19 What is the value of knowing the viral load?RETROVIRAL TREATMENT The viral load is the best indicator of the response of the immune system to5-15 How is the response to antiretroviral treatment. With successfulantiretroviral treatment assessed? treatment the viral load will steadily drop until it is undetectable (less than 50 copies/ml).1. By the clinical response Measuring the viral load is of very little value2. By the viral load before antiretroviral treatment is started.3. By the CD4 count5-16 What is the expected clinical Viral load is the best indicator of the success ofresponse to antiretroviral treatment? antiretroviral treatment.With successful treatment patients should NOTE The viral load is the best measure of thestart to feel and look well again. Most patients rate at which the infection will progress. Thedevelop a good appetite and gain weight. higher the viral load, the sooner the personAssociated infections such as thrush and will become ill. Patients with symptomatic HIVdiarrhoea disappear and skin rashes clear infection have a higher viral load than peopleup. The clinical response follows the gradual with HIV infection who are still well. A patientrecovery of the immune system. By three with a viral load above 6 log has a poor prognosismonths patients should notice a big difference without urgent antiretroviral treatment.in their general health. 5-20 How is the viral load expressed?5-17 What is the viral load? The viral load is expressed as copies/ml orThe viral load is a measure of the amount of a log value. The log value is preferred if theHIV in the blood. The higher the viral load, change in viral load is determined. If the viralthe faster HIV is multiplying. Therefore, a high load drops by 1 log the number of copies/mlviral load indicates that there is a lot of HIV in will fall by a factor of 10. Similarly a 2 or 3 logthe blood (and other body secretions). Viral drop means that the number of viral copies has decreased 100 or 1000 fold respectively.
MANAGEMENT OF PATIENTS ON ANTIRETROVIRAL TREATMENT 75The log value will fall by 0.3 if the number of 5-25 What change should take placeviral copies is halved. in the viral load by six months? The viral load should be undetectable (less Log values are used to measure changes in viral load. than 50 copies/ml). NOTE Only a change in viral load of 5-26 What is the best indicator greater than 0.5 log is significant. of treatment success? An undetectable viral load.5-21 What viral load indicates agood response to treatment? An undetectable viral load is the best indicator ofIf the response to antiretroviral treatment isgood the viral load should fall by 1 log within successful treatment.six weeks. (See 5-25.) 5-27 What should be done if the5-22 What are viral ‘blips’? treatment is successful?These are transient (short-lived) increases If the treatment is successful with anin the viral load of patients who are being undetectable viral load by six months, thesuccessfully treated. They may be caused patient should be followed at the ART clinicby an acute infection or an immunisation. and seen every three months. The CD4 countTherefore, it is important that the viral load is and viral load should be measured 12-monthlynot measured when the patient is ill. to determine whether the treatment has remained successful or not. Adherence should5-23 When should the CD4 count be supported at every clinic visit.and viral loads be measured? 5-28 For how long can treatmentViral loads and CD4 counts should be remain successful?measured 6 months and 12 months afterstarting treatment and every 12 months For many years. Provided drug adherence isthereafter. excellent, viral resistance is unlikely to develop and a long-lasting response to multi-drug NOTE Should funding permit, more frequent treatment can be expected (15 to 20 years with CD4 and viral load monitoring is preferable excellent adherence). and should be done every 4 to 6 months for tighter control of treatment. Antiretroviral treatment can be successful for5-24 What change should take place many years.in the CD4 count by six months?The CD4 count should increase by 80% or 5-29 What is treatment failure?more. The features of treatment failure after six months on antiretroviral therapy are: NOTE The CD4 count should be increasing by 16 weeks (four months) after starting treatment. The 1. A viral load above 1000 copies/ml lower the CD4 count at the start of antiretroviral 2. A CD4 count that has not increased above treatment, the slower will be the return to normal. the baseline level Progression of the clinical disease with further development of HIV-associated infections or malignancies despite antiretroviral treatment should always suggest treatment failure.
76 ADULT HIV NOTE Some patients with a very low CD4 to any antiretroviral drugs before must be count at the start of treatment may fail to discussed with an antiretroviral expert before show a rise in the CD4 count despite good starting treatment. viral suppression and clinical improvement. NOTE Patients who have previously been exposed5-30 What should be done if the first- to one or more antiretroviral drug(s) are noline treatment is unsuccessful? longer ‘antiretroviral naive’ and may already be resistant to one or more of these drugs.These patients and their management mustbe carefully reviewed before a change in 5-32 What should be done iftreatment is made. Treatment failure may be first-line treatment has faileddue to poor adherence or may occasionally despite excellent adherence?occur in spite of excellent adherence. Change from first-line to second-line1. If adherence is poor, every effort must be treatment. The second-line combination is made to improve adherence. The causes AZT, 3TC and lopinavir/ritonavir. of poor adherence must be found and corrected if possible. If the viral load is 50 to 1000 copies/ml, the viral load should 5-33 How is the second-line be repeated in six months; but if the viral of treatment managed? load is above 1000 copies/ml it should The schedule of visits is the same as that for the be repeated in three months. If the viral first-line combination with a commencement load remains high due to poor adherence, visit followed by visits at four, eight and 12 all antiretroviral treatment should be weeks. Patients are then seen again at six stopped and the patient returned to start months followed by three-monthly visits. preparation for treatment once again.2. If adherence has been good, drug 5-34 What routine blood tests are resistance may still have occurred and a done with second-line treatment? change in drug regimen to the second- line combination should be made. Patients receiving AZT should have a baseline Good adherence with a viral load above full blood count and differential before the 1000 copies/ml is usually an indication start of treatment followed by a full blood for a change in drug regimen. Always count and differential at four, eight, 12 and 24 repeat the viral load before considering a weeks, as AZT may suppress the bone marrow. regimen change. Patients on lopinavir/ritonavir should have a baseline fasting blood glucose, cholesterol Always repeat the viral load measurement before and triglyceride measurement. This should be repeated at three months. considering a change in regimen. 5-35 What should be done if the5-31 Can previous exposure to second-line treatment fails?antiretrovirals lead to treatment failure? If failure is due to poor adherence, everyYes. If first-line treatment including nevirapine effort must be made to improve adherence.in a woman has failed, despite excellent If adherence is excellent and the patientadherence, make sure that she was not given becomes clinically worse on the second-linenevirapine for the prevention of mother-to- combination, the patient should still continuechild transmission of HIV. Previous exposure with the treatment. Antiretroviral therapy hasto nevirapine is not a contraindication to been shown to be lifesaving even in patientsstandardised first-line treatment. However, with a viral load up to 20 000 copies/ml.treatment of patients who have been exposed
MANAGEMENT OF PATIENTS ON ANTIRETROVIRAL TREATMENT 77 NOTE Additional antiretroviral drugs can be used in new combinations in an attempt to control viral Not more than three doses a month should be replication in patients who have failed on both missed. first- and second-line treatment. This is a complex problem that must only be addressed by an ART NOTE Owing to the short half-life of antiretroviral specialist. Evidence shows that there may still be drugs, blood levels fall rapidly if a single dose benefit in keeping patients on a failing regimen. is missed. The correct dose must be taken at the correct time in the correct way.PROBLEMS WITH ANTI- Excellent adherence is the key to treatmentRETROVIRAL TREATMENT success. 5-39 What is poor adherence?5-36 What are the main problemswith antiretroviral treatment? Poor adherence is missing doses or taking doses at the wrong time. Any adherence of less1. Poor adherence than 95% is not good enough (i.e. poor). Even2. Viral resistance to drugs adherence of 80 to 95% may be inadequate.3. Treatment failure4. Drug interactions5. Drug interruptions 5-40 What are the dangers6. Side effects of poor adherence?7. Immune reconstitution syndrome 1. Drug resistance8. Complete dependence on long-term 2. Treatment failure medication 3. Increased morbidity and mortality9. Expense Every effort must be made to ensure excellent adherence. Without excellent adherence theADHERENCE progression of HIV will not be stopped.5-37 What is adherence? Poor adherence increases the risk of treatment failure and drug resistance.Adherence is the degree to which patients taketheir antiretroviral drugs correctly. 5-41 How is adherence measured?5-38 What is excellent adherence? The history given by the patient is an unreliable method of assessing adherence.Excellent adherence is taking all the pills Better methods include:correctly every day. With excellent adherence,95% of all doses must be taken (i.e. 19 out 1. Counting tablets that have not been takenof 20 doses). This means that not more than (pill count). Patients should be asked tothree doses can be missed in a month. It is bring all their tablets back to the clinic atalso important that the doses are taken at the every visit.same time each day. Taking all the drugs at the 2. Daily record cards or dosing diaries.correct dose and at the correct time each day 3. Unannounced home visits with pill counts.is very important if antiretroviral treatment A simple card for recording each dose on ais going to be successful. Antiretroviral daily basis helps promote and assess excellenttreatment can suppress the viral load reliably adherence.only if adherence is excellent.
78 ADULT HIV5-42 What factors are associated 5. Suggest practical reminders such as anwith poor adherence? alarm clock, or link the time of taking medication to a particular radio or TV1. Poor patient preparation for antiretroviral programme or cleaning teeth. A cell phone treatment message or pager call can be arranged. Get2. Inadequate home support the patient to use a pill box where tablets3. Poor relationship with the clinic staff for the day can be counted out beforehand.4. Alcohol or drug abuse Counsellors who know the community well5. Depression or other emotional problems can often offer the best adherence advice6. Side effects to antiretroviral treatment that will be suitable to the patient’s lifestyle.7. Adherence tends to become worse over 6. Patients need constant monitoring, time education, encouragement and support.8. Non-disclosure of HIV status Good preparation and long-term supportNote that excellent adherence does not is essential for excellent adherence.correlate with gender, education level, socio- 7. If possible, they should disclose their HIVeconomic class or cultural background. status to a friend or family member whoAdherence can be excellent even in poor, can support them.under-developed communities. 8. Regular support groups of other patients on antiretroviral treatment are very helpful.5-43 How can adherence be improved? 9. Continuing education should be provided at every visit.Excellent adherence must be promoted before 10. Side effects must be promptly and correctlytreatment is started and then promoted managed.continually at every clinic visit. Patients 11. Provide a more caring service.must be encouraged to take an active andresponsible role in their treatment. Patients must be ready and prepared before1. Before starting antiretroviral treatment, patients must make a firm decision to starting antiretroviral treatment. take medication at the correct time every day for the rest of their lives. They must 5-44 How can health workers have a positive attitude and be ready to provide a more caring service? take antiretroviral treatment. A clearly Adherence can be improved if the clinic understood treatment plan must be provides a more caring service. negotiated with the patient.2. Patients must understand why adherence is 1. Healthcare providers must make every important and know about the dangers of effort to establish a trusting relationship poor adherence. Education and counselling with each patient. If possible the patient about adherence should be provided at should see the same dedicated carer at every visit in the patient’s home language. each visit. A supportive and non-judgemental 2. The clinic should provide a safe approach is needed. environment where the patient can feel3. Give and monitor the adherence to protected. Patients should feel they are treatment with co-trimoxazole for a month welcome to come to the clinic with a before starting antiretroviral treatment. problem on any day, not just on their4. The clinic staff should check on adherence appointment day. at every visit. A pill count should be done. If 3. Remember that acceptance and emotional adherence is poor, ask the patient why doses support by the clinic staff are very have been missed and re-educate about the important parts of good care. Regular importance of adhering to treatment. update education and an evaluation of the
MANAGEMENT OF PATIENTS ON ANTIRETROVIRAL TREATMENT 79 quality of advice being given by health 5-49 Is an HIV adherence programme workers is important. the same as the ‘DOT’ programme?4. A patient should never be without the No, there are differences. With the DOT required medication. It is unacceptable for programme (Direct Observation of Therapy) the clinic to run out of drugs. the responsibility for taking the anti-TB medication is shared between the patient and a A good, caring service by the clinic improves supporter in the community. This has only had adherence. limited success due to the difficulty in finding reliable and motivated supporters. In the HIV programme, patients are motivated and helped5-45 What are the commonest to take responsibility for their own treatment.reasons for missing a dose? Although family and community support is1. Forgot still important, the main responsibility for2. Too busy or away from home taking the medication correctly every day is3. Too ill placed on the patients themselves.4. Side effects However, in patients who are unable to5. Angry or depressed maintain excellent adherence in spite of6. Other urgent family matters such as a sick help and support, a DOT system, where the child or death of a relative responsibility for taking antiretroviral drugs isIt is very important to find out why doses given to another reliable person (a ‘treatmenthave been missed and how adherence can be partner’), may be useful.improved. 5-50 What is a national HIV adherence programme? It is important to find out why doses are missed. It is hoped that the media and the general5-46 Can a dose be taken late? community will help in reminding people on antiretroviral treatment to take theirIf a dose is not taken at the correct time, it can medication. Reminders could be given overstill be safely taken when remembered. It is the radio or on television. As HIV is a nationalbetter to take the dose late than not at all. problem, it is important that the whole nation helps to make sure that there is excellent5-47 Does it matter if the adherence to antiretroviral treatment in ordermedication is vomited? to reduce the risk of HIV drug resistance and the further spread of HIV.Yes. If the patient vomits up the pills or tablets,the dose should be taken again immediately.Vomiting more than one hour after the A national adherence programme is urgentlymedication is probably not important. needed.5-48 What factor may causepoor absorption of drugs? DRUG RESISTANCETaking ddI with meals results in poorabsorption. Therefore ddI is always taken wellbefore or well after a meal. 5-51 What is drug resistance? Drug resistance in HIV occurs when the multiplication of HIV is not blocked
80 ADULT HIVcompletely by a particular drug combination. drugs in the same class. This is called cross-Drug resistance will lead to treatment failure. resistance (i.e. HIV is resistant to drugs across a drug class). This is particularly common5-52 Is drug resistance important? for ‘non-nucs’. If patients are resistant to nevirapine there is a high chance that they willYes. The development of resistance to one or also be resistant to efavirenz. Drug resistancemore antiretroviral drugs will reduce the chance between classes is uncommon.of successful treatment to the individual. It willalso increase the risk of other people in the NOTE Drug resistance may be primary (whencommunity acquiring HIV infection which is the person is infected by a virus which isresistant to those drugs. This can be disastrous already resistant to one or more drugs) orto both the patient and the community. secondary (when the virus becomes resistant during the course of treatment). Primary resistance is still uncommon in South Africa. Drug resistance can be disastrous to both the patient and the community. TREATMENT FAILURE NOTE Resistance is most common with ‘non-nucs’ and 3TC as resistance occurs after a single mutation. Resistance to 5-56 What are the two types lopinavir/ritonavir is uncommon. of treatment failure? Treatment failure is diagnosed when5-53 How can drug resistance be avoided? antiretroviral treatment fails to produce and1. By using a combination of three drugs maintain an adequate suppression of the viral from two drug classes. This is the basis of load. There are two forms of treatment failure. standardised regimens. 1. Treatment failure right from the start of2. By excellent adherence. The more treatment when the viral load does not fall frequently doses are missed, the greater is as expected within six months. the risk of resistance to those drugs. 2. There may initially be a good fall in viral load but the viral load later increases again despite continuing treatment. Excellent adherence to antiretroviral treatment is the best way of avoiding drug resistance. 5-57 How is treatment failure confirmed?5-54 Can resistance be caused Before diagnosing treatment failure it isby previous drug exposure? important to repeat the viral load measurement after three months. The diagnosis of treatmentYes. Patients who have previously been given failure is confirmed if the viral load remainsantiretroviral drugs (‘non-naive patients’) must high or increases further. Sometimes thebe carefully assessed by an antiretroviral expert viral load will be increased at the time of thebefore one of the standard drug combinations first measurement but falls with the secondis started. There is concern that nevirapine measurement. Transient rises in the viral loadused in the prevention of mother-to-child are called ‘blips’. They are not uncommon,transmission (PMTCT) may cause later drug especially if there has been a viral or bacterialresistance to nevirapine in mother or infant. infection, or the patient has recently been immunised. Therefore, always repeat the viral5-55 What is cross-resistance? load after three months before diagnosing treatment failure.If HIV becomes resistant to one drug in aclass it is often also resistant to some or all the
MANAGEMENT OF PATIENTS ON ANTIRETROVIRAL TREATMENT 815-58 What are the causes result in the blood level of the drug beingof treatment failure? too high or too low. 3. If two drugs have similar side effects,There are a number of causes: these side effects are more likely to occur1. Poor adherence and be more severe if the two drugs are2. Poor absorption used together.3. Adverse drug interactions4. Infection with drug-resistant HIV 5-62 Which antiretroviral agents should not be used together?5-59 What is the commonest Using either the first- or second-linecause of treatment failure? combinations for antiretroviral treatmentPoor adherence is the commonest cause of avoids drug combinations which competetreatment failure. with each other. NOTE AZT should not be used together Poor adherence is the commonest cause of with d4T due to their competing sites of treatment failure. action. ddI and d4T should be avoided in combination due to additive toxicities.5-60 How should treatmentfailure be managed? 5-63 What is the effect of rifampicin on antiretroviral drugs?The cause of the high viral load must bedetermined as far as possible, and actively Rifampicin, used in the treatment of TB,managed, before the viral load measurement increases the rate at which some antiretroviralis repeated. It is important that the treatment drugs are broken down by the liver. As a result,regime should not be changed until a careful these drugs may not act adequately becauseassessment is done and all the options their blood levels are too low.considered. The second measurement of the 1. Rifampicin causes no problems with ‘nucs’.viral load is usually done three months after 2. Rifampicin causes some problems withthe first measurement. ‘non-nucs’ and lowers blood level of these drugs, especially nevirapine. Efavirenz is The treatment regimen should not be changed less affected than nevirapine, therefore nevirapine is often changed to efavirenz in haste. when first-line antiretroviral treatment is being given at the same time as anti-TB treatment.DRUG INTERACTIONS 3. Rifampicin causes serious problems with ‘PIs’ as it lowers blood levels of most of these drugs by about 80%. Therefore higher doses5-61 What is a drug interaction? of ‘PIs’ are needed when they are used withThis is the interference of one drug with rifampicin. Ritonavir is least affected byanother drug. Common examples of drug rifampicin and therefore is the best choiceinteraction are: of ‘PI’. An extra 300 mg of ritonavir is added to each of the twice-daily doses of lopinavir1. Two similar drugs compete with each other if lopinavir is used with rifampicin. at their site of action. 4. The dosage of the lopinavir/ritonavir2. One drug alters the rate at which another combination tablet can be doubled. drug is broken down in the body. This may
82 ADULT HIV stopping the ‘non-nuc’. The same or another Higher than normal doses of ‘PIs’ are needed if antiretroviral drug combination should be used together with rifampicin. started as soon as possible. Never interrupt treatment if it can be avoided. NOTE Protease inhibitors alter the metabolism of many drugs by inhibiting the p450 enzyme system (especially CYP3A4) which It is essential to stop all drugs and not just the is used to break down these drugs. one drug believed to be causing a problem.5-64 What is the risk of using INH NOTE Planned drug interruptions at regular intervalstogether with antiretroviral therapy? are not being used in the treatment of HIV.Peripheral neuropathy is a side effect of INH(isoniazid) as well as d4T and ddI. Therefore,the risk of peripheral neuropathy is greater if SIDE EFFECTS OFeither d4T or ddI are used together with INH. ANTIRETROVIRAL AGENTSDRUG INTERRUPTIONS 5-68 What should be done if the patient has a severe reaction to a drug?5-65 What is a drug interruption? All drugs must be stopped immediately. Never stop only one drug. The whole drugThis is when antiretroviral treatment is stopped combination must be assessed. Either of thefor a short period (a temporary interruption). following may be done: 1. All three drugs can be changed to another5-66 What are the reasons combination.for drug interruptions? 2. The drug causing the problem can beCauses of drug interruptions are: swapped, usually to a drug from another class as often there are similar side effects1. Intolerable side effects. Once the symptoms to other drugs in a the same class. For are under control treatment may be changed example, do not swap efavirenz for to another drug combination, or the same nevirapine. Rather replace nevirapine with drug combination may be restarted. lopinavir/ritonavir.2. Interaction with other drugs, e.g. TB 3. All drug side effects should be reported. treatment.3. Patient unable to swallow due to severe oesophageal thrush. IMMUNE RECONSTITUTION4. Lack of drugs at the clinic. This should never happen but unfortunately it does. INFLAMMATORY SYNDROME (IRIS)5-67 What is the danger ofdrug interruption? 5-69 What is the immune reconstitutionIf only one antiretroviral drug is stopped inflammatory syndrome?there is a danger that resistance will developto the remaining drugs. Therefore, it is best This is an unexpected clinical deteriorationto stop all the antiretroviral drugs if drug which occurs soon after antiretroviralinterruption cannot be avoided. When treatment is begun. Functional immunestopping a regimen containing a ‘non-nuc’ the recovery starts within weeks of beginning‘nucs’ should be continued for one week after antiretroviral treatment. An inflammatory
MANAGEMENT OF PATIENTS ON ANTIRETROVIRAL TREATMENT 83response to HIV-associated infections was The immune reconstitution inflammatorynot possible before antiretroviral treatment syndrome presents suddenly and unexpectedlywas started as the immune system was toosuppressed. As the immune system recovers, with clinical deterioration in the patient’sthe body may develop an inflammatory condition soon after antiretroviral treatment isresponse to any of the following: started.1. Hidden or mild infections which have been missed clinically (i.e. unmask 5-72 Which patients are most likely to unrecognised infection). An example develop the immune reconstitution would be silent TB. inflammatory syndrome?2. Worsen existing infections. An example Patients with a CD4 count below 50 cells/μl would be TB which has only been treated when antiretroviral treatment is started. for a few weeks.3. Infections which have been treated but 5-73 What is the commonest cause of the antigens still remain. An example would immune reconstitution inflammatory be dead TB bacteria still present after a few syndrome in South Africa? months of anti-tuberculous treatment. Tuberculosis is the commonest cause of5-70 How many patients develop the immune reconstitution syndrome inthe immune reconstitution South Africa. The immune reconstitutioninflammatory syndrome? inflammatory syndrome presenting with TB is less common if TB is treated for at least aAbout a third of patients starting antiretroviral month before starting antiretroviral treatment.treatment develop a mild immune Immune reconstitution inflammatoryreconstitution syndrome which does not syndrome is not caused by treatment failure,require treatment. Rarely the immune side effects or drug interactions.reconstitution syndrome is serious and veryrarely may be life threatening. NOTE When starting antiretroviral treatment, TB may present for the first time (previously5-71 How does the immune missed clinically) or partially treated TB (noreconstitutional inflammatory live bacteria but antigen still present) may flare up with an acute inflammatory reaction.syndrome present clinically? Suddenly enlarged paratracheal nodes, pleuralIt usually presents with fever and a worsening effusions or parenchymal lung disease mayof the patient’s symptoms after starting be seen on chest X-ray. Mycobacteria aviumantiretroviral treatment. All cases of possible complex infection is the commonest cause of the immune reconstitution inflammatoryimmune reconstitution inflammatory syndrome in developed countries. Severe acne,syndrome must be urgently referred to cryptococcal meningitis, cytomegalovirusan antiretroviral clinic. The immune retinitis, extensive molluscum, viral hepatitis,reconstitution inflammatory syndrome shingles, genital herpes and Kaposi’s sarcomausually presents abruptly within a month after have also been described with the immuneantiretroviral treatment is started. Consider reconstitution inflammatory syndrome.immune reconstitution inflammatorysyndrome in anyone who is not thriving after 5-74 How is a patient with thesix weeks of antiretroviral treatment. immune reconstitution inflammatory syndrome best managed? The disease causing the inflammation must be diagnosed and treated. Avoid stopping antiretroviral treatment if at all possible. The
84 ADULT HIVpatient may need to be referred to an HIV CASE STUDY 1specialist. A patient who is ‘treatment ready’ attends Immune reconstitution inflammatory syndrome is her first treatment visit. She receives her final not an indication to stop antiretroviral treatment. instructions and is given her treatment chart. NOTE A short course of steroids may have 1. What should be done at the first a role in managing a severe reaction. treatment (commencement) visit? After a pill count (of co-trimoxazole) and meeting with the counsellor to discuss theQUALITY OF LIFE importance of excellent adherence, a final assessment by the doctor is made. This is followed by a visit to the pharmacist to collect5-75 How may the quality of the first month’s supply of medication.life be negatively affected byantiretroviral treatment? 2. What medication will be given?Some patients become anxious and depressed Patients are almost always started on thedespite a good response to treatment because first-line combination (3TC, TDF and eitherthey face a lifetime of taking drugs for a nevirapine or efavirenz). Co-trimoxazolechronic disease. A similar problem is seen with prophylaxis will also be continued.patients suffering from other chronic medicalconditions such as diabetes and epilepsy.These patients need additional counselling and 3. How often should patients be seensupport. This problem can usually be avoided during the first four months of treatment?by good preparation before treatment is started. Routine visits are at four, eight and 12 weeks with an extra visit at two weeks for patients NOTE Unsafe sexual practices have been shown receiving nevirapine. to decrease once antiretroviral treatment is started. Patients become more responsible. 4. Why are patients on nevirapine seen at two weeks?EXPENSE Because the dose of nevirapine is increased at two weeks.5-76 Does the cost of drugs affect 5. What should be done at theseantiretroviral treatment? routine follow up visits?Unfortunately some antiretroviral drugs are At the four, eight and 12 weeks visits theexpensive. If the state does not provide a patients are weighed and clinically examined.free service, patients have to buy their own A history is taken for adherence, side effects ordrugs. Expense is one of the reasons that other problems and the patient is counselled. Aantiretroviral treatment is not made available pill count is done, routine blood samples takento all patients who need it. It is hoped that and one month’s supply of medication given.cheaper generic drugs will soon be producedfor poor countries.
MANAGEMENT OF PATIENTS ON ANTIRETROVIRAL TREATMENT 85CASE STUDY 2 months and 12 months, and then 12-monthly thereafter.A patient attends all his routine visits forthe first four months. He feels well and allhis symptoms and signs of illness gradually CASE STUDY 3disappear. He has no side effects from theantiretroviral treatment. A patient is still ill after antiretroviral treatment for six months. Her CD4 count1. When should he attend the remains below 200 cells/μl and her viral load isnext follow up visit? above 1000 copies/ml.At six months after starting treatment. 1. What is your diagnosis?However, he should immediately return to theantiretroviral treatment clinic if he experiences Antiretroviral treatment has failed.side effects or has other problems. 2. What is the commonest cause2. How often do patients of treatment failure?collect their medication? Poor adherence.Every one to three months. These visits shouldbe used to assess and promote excellent 3. How should this patient be managed?adherence. It is important to establish whether adherence has been excellent or poor. If adherence is3. How is the success or failure poor, every effort must be made to improveof treatment determined? adherence. The viral load should then beBy measuring the CD4 count and viral load as measured again after three months. If it remainswell as finding out whether the clinical signs of high the patient is not ready for antiretroviralHIV have disappeared. treatment and stopping all treatment should be considered until the patient has been fully4. When should the CD4 count prepared to start treatment once again.and viral load be measured afterstarting antiretroviral treatment? 4. What should be done if adherence has been excellent?At the six month visit. The CD4 count shouldhave increased while the viral load should be If the viral load remains high in spite ofundetectable if treatment is successful. excellent drug adherence, the patient should be considered for treatment with the second-5. What is the single best measure line combination. The HIV is probablyof treatment success? resistant to the first-line drugs.An undetectable viral load. 5. When are the routine visits with second- line treatment?6. How should this patient bemanaged after six months? The same as first-line treatment with visits at four, eight and 12 weeks followed by a visitIf the antiretroviral treatment has been at six months and then every three monthssuccessful the patient should be seen every thereafter if treatment is successful.three months. However, he should continueto collect his medication regularly. His CD4count and viral load should be measured at six
86 ADULT HIV6. What routine blood tests should be taken treatment may have to be stopped and theif patients are on second-line treatment? patient given only supportive care.Before treatment is started a full blood countwith differential, glucose, triglyceride and 5. What is the danger of drugcholesterol tests are done for baseline values. resistance to the community?After treatment has been started a full blood It makes HIV more difficult to treat. Others maycount and differential at four, eight, 12 and become infected with a strain of HIV resistant24 weeks to screen for anaemia, which to one or more drugs. Therefore it is in theis a common side effect of AZT. Fasting interest of the whole community that patientsglucose, cholesterol and triglyceride should take their antiretroviral treatment correctly.be measured at three months. These testsscreen for metabolic abnormalities caused by 6. How is the risk of druglopinavir/ritonavir. resistance reduced? By excellent adherence and always using combinations of at least three antiretroviralCASE STUDY 4 drugs.A patient on antiretroviral treatment admitsto poor adherence. He is sent to the treatment CASE STUDY 5counsellor to discuss the importance ofexcellent adherence. Three weeks after starting antiretroviral treatment a patient becomes unwell with1. What is the definition of poor adherence? fever and severe cough. The patient had beenTaking less that 95% of doses. Even moderate reasonably well during the weeks before startingadherence, when between 80 and 95% of doses treatment despite having a very low CD4 count.are taken, is not satisfactory. The goal must beto take all doses at the correct time. 1. What is the likely diagnosis? Immune reconstitution inflammatory2. What is the danger of poor adherence? syndrome (IRIS). Patients with a very lowAntiretroviral treatment is likely to fail and CD4 count at the start of antiretroviralthere is a high chance of HIV resistance to the treatment are at high risk of this condition.antiretroviral drugs. 2. What is the commonest cause of3. What can be done to help this patient this condition in South Africa?remember to take his medication? Tuberculosis. With fever and coughLink the time for the dose with a particular this patient probably has the immuneradio or TV programme or an activity, e.g. reconstitution inflammatory syndrome duecleaning his teeth. An alarm clock can be used to TB. This can sometimes be prevented ifor a supporter could remind him or send a cell the TB treatment is started before startingphone message. antiretroviral treatment.4. Why is drug resistance a 3. What is the immune reconstitutiondanger for a patient? inflammatory syndrome?Because it restricts the choice of drugs which This is an inflammatory reaction whichare likely to be effective. If both the first- and develops when the patient’s immune systemsecond-line combinations fail, antiretroviral starts to recover. Before treatment is started,
MANAGEMENT OF PATIENTS ON ANTIRETROVIRAL TREATMENT 87the immune system is too suppressed 5. How long can HIV patients survive(weakened) to respond to an infection such on antiretroviral treatment?as TB. The treatment therefore ‘unmasks’ an Provided their adherence is excellent, theyinfection that previously had been ‘hidden’. can remain well with a good quality of life for many years.4. How should this condition be managed?It usually gets better if antiretroviral treatment 6. What may affect the quality of life inis continued provided that the underlying these patients on successful treatment?cause is also treated. Immune reconstitution The fact that they have a chronic illness andinflammatory syndrome is not an indication to must remain on treatment for life. The pricestop antiretroviral treatment. of antiretroviral drugs may also be high in the private sector. These difficulties should be discussed with the treatment counsellor.
DOSING FOR PATIENTS ON FIRST-LINE COMBINATION Medicine Timing of doses Possible side effects morning 12 hours night (e.g. 7am 7pm) 24 hours1. TDF (Viread) Kidney damage2. 3TC (lamivudine)* 12 hours Diarrhoea, headache3. Efavirenz (Stocrin) 24 hours Skin rash (allergy), vivid dreams, dizziness, sleep Taken once a day, at night changes in first four weeks Most side effects get better after one to two months of treatment 24 hours1. TDF (Viread) Kidney damage2. 3TC (lamivudine)* 12 hours Diarrhoea, headache3. Nevirapine (Viramune) 12 hours Skin rash (allergy), hepatitis Most side effects get better after one to two months of treatmentDOSING FOR PATIENTS ON SECOND-LINE COMBINATION1. AZT (Zidovudine) 12 hours Numbness or pain in the feet, abdominal pain, hepatitis, acidosis2. 3TC (lamivudine)* 12 hours Diarrhoea, headache3. (Lopinavir + ritonavir) 12 hours Skin rash (allergy), hepatitis Most side effects get better after one to two months of treatment* Using 300 mg, 3TC is taken daily.