Alaska is the United States’ only Arctic region. Its marine, tundra, boreal (northern) forest, and rainforest ecosystems differ from most of those in other states and are relatively intact. Alaska is home to millions of migratory birds, hundreds of thousands of caribou, some of the world’s largest salmon runs, a significant proportion of the nation’s marine mammals, and half of the nation’s fish catch.123
Energy production is the main driver of the state’s economy, providing more than 80% of state government revenue and thousands of jobs.168 Continuing pressure for oil, gas, and mineral development on land and offshore in ice-covered waters increases the demand for infrastructure, placing additional stresses on ecosystems. Land-based energy exploration will be affected by a shorter season when ice roads are viable, yet reduced sea ice extent may create more opportunity for offshore development. Climate also affects hydropower generation.67 Mining and fishing are the second and third largest industries in the state, with tourism rapidly increasing since the 1990s.168 Fisheries are vulnerable to changes in fish abundance and distribution that result from both climate change and fishing pressure. Tourism might respond positively to warmer springs and autumns169 but negatively to less favorable conditions for winter activities and increased summer smoke from wildfire.170
Alaska is home to 40% (229 of 566) of the federally recognized tribes in the United States.171 The small number of jobs, high cost of living, and rapid social change make rural, predominantly Native, communities highly vulnerable to climate change through impacts on traditional hunting and fishing and cultural connection to the land and sea. Because most of these communities are not connected to the state’s road system or electrical grid, the cost of living is high, and it is challenging to supply food, fuel, materials, health care, and other services. Climate impacts on these communities are magnified by additional social and economic stresses. However, Alaskan Native communities have for centuries dealt with scarcity and high environmental variability and thus have deep cultural reservoirs of flexibility and adaptability.