- Basic types of mimicry
- Warning systems
- The occurrence of mimicry among plants and animals
- The evolution of mimicry
Many flowering plants lure insects through the use of bright colours that indicate the presence of nectar. Some orchids mimic other flowering plants without offering any nectar, relying on those that do provide nectar to reward the nectar seekers.
A group of orchids, often known by such descriptive names as fly orchid, bee orchid, and spider orchid, carries the deception further, actually mimicking the insects themselves. The best-known orchids of this type are members of the genus Ophrys. The labellum (lip) of the Ophrys flower is a specialized median petal that acts as a dummy female of a species of bee or wasp (depending on the species of Ophrys), the resemblance being so close that males visit the flower in an attempt to copulate with the dummy female (see photograph). In the course of precopulatory and copulatory movements, the visiting insect acquires the pollen sacs (pollinia) of the orchid and subsequently transmits them to other blossoms. A similar situation occurs in an Australian orchid, Cryptostylis leptochila, which bears a sufficient resemblance to the female of the ichneumon wasp Lissopimpla semipunctata to induce copulation by the male wasp.
An important feature in the mimicry of female insects by orchids is flower size. Flowers that are too small do not provide adequate stimulus for the copulatory attempts necessary to plant the pollinia on the insect. Conversely, if the flower is too large for the insect, the insect’s head does not reach the stigma of the flower (the female receptor site for pollen), and the pollinia are not deposited on the insect.
The colour of the orchid’s labellum is also important in attracting and properly orienting the male insect. The males are more attracted to dark than to light colours and to a contrasting dark spot on a light background. A velvety surface is a more effective attractant than a shiny one. The centre of the labellum of Ophrys insectifera bears a dark red spot, almost black, whereas the lateral lobes of the labellum are a somewhat lighter purple-red. Female wasps of the genus Gorytes, males of which are highly attentive to this orchid, are black dorsally with dark purple wings. Where the folded wings overlap over the female’s body, there is a glistening area closely resembling the shiny central spot on the flower. The overall effect is further enhanced by movements of the flower in the wind.
Odour plays a particularly strong role in attracting male insects to the mimicking orchids. Some female Hymenoptera secrete odoriferous substances (pheromones) that initiate search behaviour in the males and guide them to the stationary females. Such attractant chemicals are usually limited in effectiveness to the producing species or a few close relatives. Ophrys flowers give off odours similar to, if not identical with, those produced by females of their associated insects. In a few cases the odour of the flower is a more potent attractant for the male than that of the appropriate female.
Carrion flowers, stinkhorn mushrooms, and mosses
A group of flowers are able to attract dung beetles (certain of the Scarabaeidae) and carrion flies (Calliphoridae) by mimicking the odours of dung or rotting flesh used by these insects as guides to sites for egg deposition. In some carrion flowers (e.g., Stapelia) the deception is so complete that blowflies actually lay their eggs in the flowers. The cuckoopint (Arum maculatum), which has a metabolic level unequaled among plants, spreads its odour over a wide area by an elevation of temperature that increases the vaporization rate of the volatile odour substance. An elaborate mechanism in the cuckoopint ensures that a pollen-laden visitor remains long enough to deposit the pollen. The sheath of the floral structure, upon which the insect lands, is made slippery by oil droplets with the result that the insect slides down into a cup equipped with a ring of spines to prevent escape. In trying to climb out, the insect deposits pollen on the tiny female flowers, from which the insect receives nectar. During the night, the male flowers mature and cover the resting insect with pollen. Then the spines shrink, and the insect is released. The production of the attractant odour occurs at midday, when many carrion-seeking insects are active, on the day before the male flowers mature; the timing of the cuckoopint’s odour production is controlled by a substance produced by the male flowers six to 18 hours before maturity.
A similar situation is found in stinkhorn mushrooms of the genus Phallus, found in woodlands and meadows of the Northern Hemisphere. The cap of the young stinkhorn is covered with a thick, greenish-black, shiny layer of gelatinous spore slime (gleba), which is eaten by blowflies and other insects attracted by the carrion-like odour. The spores pass through the digestive tracts of the insects and are voided with the feces, thus ensuring dispersal.
Some mosses (e.g., some members of the genus Splanchnum) have flowerlike structures that are designed to attract flies to aid in spore dispersal. Insects are attracted by the mimic of a nectar-bearing true flower and by a carrion-like odour.
Defensive egg dummies
Several species of passion-flower (Passiflora) and cruciferous plants (Streptanthus) decrease their attractiveness to ovipositing female butterflies (thus reducing predation from butterfly larvae) by producing pigmented callosities that mimic the eggs of those insects. Prior to ovipositing, females visually assess the egg load on individual host plants, avoiding parts that are already “occupied.” Removal of the egg mimics significantly increases the probability of an oviposition relative to similar, intact plants.