As more and more companies produce products that use the 2.4-GHz portion of the radio spectrum, designers have had to deal with increased signals from other sources. Regulations governing unlicensed parts of the spectrum state that your device must expect interference.
How can designers get the best performance out of their 2.4-GHz solution under these hostile conditions? Often the product works in a controlled lab environment but then suffers performance degradation from the storm of interference from other 2.4GHz solutions in the field. With existing standards like Wi-Fi, Bluetooth, and ZigBee there is little that can be done beyond what the architects of the standard provide. But when the designer controls the protocol there are procedures that will minimize the interference from other sources.
In this article,we'll examine the various interference management techniques provided by 2.4 GHz wireless systems. We'll then show how low-level tools can be used to create frequency-stability in a 2.4 GHz design.
The two methods for radio frequency modulation in the unlicensed 2.4 GHz ISM band are frequency-hopping spread spectrum (FHSS) and direct-sequence spread spectrum (DSSS). Bluetooth uses FHSS while WirelessUSB, 802.11b/g/a (commonly known as Wi-Fi), and 802.15.4 (known as ZigBee when combined with the upper networking layers) use DSSS. All of these technologies operate in the ISM frequency band (2.400"2.483 GHz), which is available worldwide (Figure 1 below).
The primary motivation for Wi-Fi is data throughput. Wi-Fi is typically used to connect computers to the local LAN (and indirectly to the Internet). Most Wi-Fi devices are laptops that are recharged daily or wall-powered access points and are therefore not power-sensitive.
Wi-Fi uses DSSS, with each channel being 22 MHz wide, allowing up to three evenly-distributed channels to be used simultaneously without overlapping each other. The channel used by each Wi-Fi access point must be manually configured; Wi-Fi clients search all channels for available access points.
802.11 uses an 11-bit pseudorandom noise (PN) code known as a Barker code to encode each information bit for the original 1 and 2 Mbit/s data rates. In order to achieve higher data rates 802.11b encodes six information bits into an eight-chip symbol using complementary code keying (CCK).
There are 64 possible symbols used in this CCK algorithm, requiring each 802.11b radio to contain 64 separate correlators (the device responsible for turning symbols into information bits), which increases the complexity and cost of the radio, but increases the data rate to 11 Mbit/s.
Figure 1: Signal comparison of wireless systems operating in the 2.4-GHz band.
The focus of Bluetooth is ad-hoc interoperability between cell phones, headsets, and PDA's. Most Bluetooth devices are recharged regularly.
Bluetooth uses FHSS and splits the 2.4 GHz ISM band into 79 1 MHz channels. Bluetooth devices hop among the 79 channels 1600 times per second in a pseudo-random pattern. Connected Bluetooth devices are grouped into networks called piconets; each piconet contains one master and up to seven active slaves. The channel-hopping sequence of each piconet is derived from the master's clock. All the slave devices must remain synchronized with this clock.
Forward error correction (FEC) is used on all packet headers, by transmitting each bit in the header three times. A Hamming code is also used for forward error correction of the data payload of some packet types. The Hamming code introduces a 50% overhead on each data packet, but is able to correct all single errors and detect all double errors in each 15-bit codeword (each 15-bit codeword contains 10 bits of information).
WirelessUSB has been designed as a cable cutter for computer input devices (mice, keyboards, etc) and is also targeting wireless sensor networks. WirelessUSB devices are not recharged regularly and are designed to operate for months on alkaline batteries.
WirelessUSB uses a radio signal similar to Bluetooth but uses DSSS instead of FHSS. Each WirelessUSB channel is 1 MHz wide, allowing WirelessUSB to split the 2.4 GHz ISM band into 79 1 MHz channels like Bluetooth. WirelessUSB devices are frequency agile, in other words, they use a "fixed" channel, but dynamically change channels if the link quality of the original channel becomes suboptimal.
WirelessUSB uses pseudo-noise (PN) codes to encode each information bit. Most WirelessUSB systems use two 32-chip PN codes allowing two information bits to be encoded in each 32-chip symbol. This scheme can correct up to three chip errors per symbol and can detect up to 10 chip errors per symbol. Although the use of 32-chip (and sometimes 64-chip) PN codes limits the data rate of WirelessUSB to 62.5 kbit/s, data integrity is much higher than Bluetooth, especially in noisy environments.
ZigBee has been designed as a standardized solution for sensor and control networks. Most ZigBee devices are extremely power-sensitive (thermostats, security sensors, etc.) with target battery life being measured in years.
ZigBee also uses a DSSS radio signal in the 868 MHz band (Europe), 915 MHz band (North America), and the 2.4 GHz ISM band (available worldwide). In the 2.4-GHz ISM band sixteen channels are defined; each channel occupies 3 MHz and channels are centered 5 MHz from each other, giving a 2-MHz gap between pairs of channels.
ZigBee uses an 11-chip PN code, with 4 information bits encoded into each symbol giving it a maximum data rate of 128 Kbps. The physical and MAC layers are defined by the IEEE 802.15.4 Working Group and share many of the same design characteristics as the IEEE 802.11b standard.
2.4-GHz Cordless Phones
2.4 GHz cordless phones are becoming increasingly popular in North America and do not use a standard networking technology. Some phones use DSSS; most use FHSS. The phones using DSSS and other fixed channel algorithms typically have a "channel" button on the phone allowing users to manually change the channel. FHSS phones do not have a "channel" button, because they are constantly changing channels. Most 2.4 GHz cordless phones use a channel width of 5 to 10 MHz.
Along with understanding how each of the technologies work, it is also important to understand how each technology interacts in homogeneous and heterogeneous environments.
Wi-Fi's collision-avoidance algorithm listens for a quiet channel before transmitting. This allows multiple Wi-Fi clients to efficiently communicate with a single Wi-Fi access point. If the Wi-Fi channel is noisy the Wi-Fi device does a random back off before listening to the channel again. If the channel is still noisy the process is repeated until the channel becomes quiet; once the channel is quiet the Wi-Fi device will begin its transmission. If the channel never becomes quiet the Wi-Fi device may search for other available access points on another channel.
Wi-Fi networks using the same or overlapping channels will co-exist due to the collision avoidance algorithm, but the throughput of each network will be reduced. If multiple networks are used in the same area it is best to use non-overlapping channels such as channels 1, 6, and 11. This allows each network to maximize its throughput since it will not have to share the bandwidth with another network.
Interference from Bluetooth is minimal due to the hopping nature of the Bluetooth transmission. If a Bluetooth device transmits on a frequency that overlaps the Wi-Fi channel while a Wi-Fi device is doing a "listen before transmit", the Wi-Fi device will do a random back off during which time the Bluetooth device will hop to a non-overlapping channel allowing the Wi-Fi device to begin its transmission.