Patent application title: Engineered Woody Biomass Baling System
David N. Lanning (Federal Way, WA, US)
David N. Lanning (Federal Way, WA, US)
James H. Dooley (Auburn, WA, US)
Christopher J. Lanning (Federal Way, WA, US)
Christopher J. Lanning (Federal Way, WA, US)
James L. Fridley (Seattle, WA, US)
James L. Fridley (Seattle, WA, US)
Forest Concepts, LLC
IPC8 Class: AB30B930FI
Class name: Presses binding binder applying
Publication date: 2012-03-22
Patent application number: 20120067229
A woody biomass baler having a baling chamber adapted to receive woody
biomass material, a compression system adapted to compact the material
into a rectangular bale in the chamber, and an ejection system adapted to
move the bale from the chamber, wherein the baling chamber has a front
wall consisting of a reciprocating compression platen corresponding in
dimensions to the width W and height H of the bale, opposing upper and
lower walls corresponding in dimensions to the length L and either of the
W and H of the bale, and opposing sidewalls corresponding in dimensions
to the L and the other of the W and H of the bale, wherein each chamber
wall selected from among the upper wall, the lower wall, and each of the
sidewalls can withstand a minimum distributed force perpendicular to the
selected wall of at least (0.11×Pp psi×Aw) pounds,
wherein Pp is the maximum pressure that the compression system can
apply to the material and Aw is the area of the selected wall
expressed in square inches, and wherein the compression system can apply
at least one platen pressure between 26 psi and 126 psi to the material.
Preferably the compression system can apply at least one platen pressure
between 46 psi and 86 psi to the woody biomass material in the baling
chamber. Most preferably, the compression system can apply at least one
platen pressure between 50 psi and 71 psi to the material. The baling
chamber may be open-ended, or closed by a back wall corresponding in
dimensions to the front wall. One of the side walls can be reversibly
opened as an ejection door, in which case the ejection system should
apply a force greater than or equal to (Pp×w)(1.2h+0.132l)
pounds to move the bale from the chamber through the opened sidewall
door, wherein w is the width of the compression platen, h is the height
of the compression platen, and l is the length of the chamber.
8. A woody biomass baler comprising a baling chamber adapted to receive woody biomass material and a compression system adapted to compact the material into a parallelepiped bale in the chamber, wherein the baling chamber comprises a front wall consisting essentially of a reciprocating compression platen corresponding in dimensions to the width W and height H of the bale, opposing upper and lower walls corresponding in dimensions to the length L and either of the W and H of the bale, and opposing sidewalls corresponding in dimensions to the L and the other of the W and H of the bale, and wherein each chamber wall selected from among the upper wall, the lower wall, and each of the sidewalls can withstand a distributed force perpendicular to the selected wall of at least (0.11.times.Pp psi×Aw) pounds, wherein Pp is the maximum pressure that the compression system can apply to the material and Aw is the area of the selected wall expressed in square inches.
9. The woody biomass baler of claim 8, wherein the compression system can apply at least one platen pressure between 26 psi and 126 psi to the material.
10. The woody biomass baler of claim 8, wherein the compression system can apply at least one platen pressure between 46 psi and 86 psi to the material.
11. The woody biomass baler of claim 8, wherein the compression system can apply at least one platen pressure between 50 psi and 71 psi to the material.
12. The woody biomass baler of claim 8, wherein at least one of the sidewalls can be reversibly opened, and further comprising an ejection system adapted to apply a force equal to or greater than (Pp×w)(1.2h+0.132l) pounds to move the bale from the chamber through the opened sidewall, wherein w is the width of the compression platen, h is the height of the compression platen, and l is the length of the chamber.
13. The woody biomass baler of claim 8, wherein either or both L/W and L/H is equal to or greater than 1.5.
14. The woody biomass baler of claim 8, wherein either or both L/W and L/H equals 2.
15. The woody biomass baler of claim 8, wherein the baling chamber is mounted on a street-legal trailer or chassis.
16. The woody biomass baler of claim 8, wherein each of the selected walls can withstand a distributed force perpendicular to the selected wall of between (0.11.times.Pp psi×Aw) pounds and (0.5.times.Pp psi×Aw) pounds.
17. The woody biomass baler of claim 16, wherein the compression system can apply at least one platen pressure between 26 psi and 126 psi to the material.
18. The woody biomass baler of claim 16, wherein the compression system can apply at least one platen pressure between 46 psi and 86 psi to the material.
19. The woody biomass baler of claim 16, wherein the compression system can apply at least one platen pressure between 50 psi and 71 psi to the material.
20. The woody biomass baler of claim 16, wherein at least one of the sidewalls can be reversibly opened, and further comprising an ejection system adapted to apply a force equal to or greater than (Pp×w)(1.2h +0.132l) pounds to move the bale from the chamber through the opened sidewall, wherein w is the width of the compression platen, h is the height of the compression platen, and l is the length of the chamber.
21. The woody biomass baler of claim 16, wherein either or both L/W and L/H is equal to or greater than 1.5.
22. The woody biomass baler of claim 16, wherein either or both L/W and L/H equals 2.
23. The woody biomass baler of claim 16, wherein the baling chamber is mounted on a street-legal trailer or chassis.
24. The woody biomass baler of claim 8, further comprising an open or reversibly opened back chamber wall and an ejection system adapted to apply a force equal to or greater than (0.132.times.Pp×l)(h+w) to move the bale from the chamber through the open or opened back chamber wall, wherein l is the length of the chamber, h is the height of the compression platen, and w is the width of the compression platen.
25. The woody biomass baler of claim 16, further comprising an open or reversibly opened back chamber wall and an ejection system adapted to apply a force equal to or greater than (0.132.times.Pp×l)(h+w) to move the bale from the chamber through the open or opened back chamber wall, wherein l is the length of the chamber, h is the height of the compression platen, and w is the width of the compression platen.
FIELD OF THE INVENTION
 Our invention relates to harvesters, particularly balers, and provides a baling system engineered to predictably and reproducibly produce rectangular bales of woody biomass at optimum transportation densities, and more particularly to baling chambers of sufficient strength to withstand the Poisson's ratio effect of woody biomass when compressed to such densities.
BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION
 Woody biomass is a core element of our nation's strategy to replace imported oil and natural gas with renewable resources. Approximately two hundred million tons of wood waste is generated by the forest products and paper industries, most of which is being used for co-products or energy. Additionally, more than one hundred million tons of woody biomass is available, but not currently used, per year from forest management, wildfire fire protection, and urban woody debris. As forested landscapes in rural and urban areas are more intensively managed in the future, the amount of available woody biomass will increase.
 Woody biomass has low bulk density, and so machinery has been developed to collect and compact woody biomass into transportable bundles, bales, modules, and containers. Pioneering research was undertaken in Scandinavia (Makela 1975; Danielsson 1977; Carlsson 1980; Sall 1981; Larsson 1981) and Canada (Sinclair 1981; Jones 1981a, 1981b).
 In the United States, Dr. Awatif Hassan at North Carolina State University early on investigated the energy consumption for a wood chip compaction system (Hassan 1976). Dr. William Stuart at Virginia Polytechnic and State University was among the early U.S. developers of forest biomass balers (Stuart and Walbridge 1978). His baler was brought to the University of Washington in 1982 for testing by Dr. Peter Schiess (Schiess and Yonaka 1983). Concurrently, James Fridley and Dr. Thomas Burkhardt at Michigan State University worked to adapt round agricultural balers to handle forest biomass (Fridley and Burkhardt 1984). Unfortunately, both projects stopped when the price of oil began to fall and public interest in biomass energy waned.
 Fortunately, much of that initial flurry of research was documented in conference proceedings and review articles (Sturos 1982; Guimier 1985). Guimier compared the potential of five existing systems (round agricultural baler, square baler, garbage truck, garbage compactor, and cotton module builder). His team found that square bales of the type made by recycling balers and large cotton modules showed the most promise.
 Renewed interest in woody biomass as a fuel and feedstock during the 1990's stimulated a number of development programs around the globe. Baling, chopping, and intermodal bulk hauling are being concurrently developed, with each being an optimal solution for particular circumstances. Chopping and intermodal bulk hauling are particularly attractive for very short haul distances. However, once the haul distance exceeds about 35 miles (60 km), the need for high bulk density solutions becomes apparent.
 Baling woody biomass to achieve high bulk density is being pursued by three technical approaches, again each approach being preferred for particular situations. Timberjack, now John Deere Forestry, has commercialized a biomass bundling system that was developed in Finland to enable forest materials to be handled similar to logs. Dr. Philippe Savoie's team in Canada has been developing round baling for woody biomass crops such as willow (Savoie et al. 2006), and more recently with SuperTrak has adapted the round bale technology for use in forestlands to cut and collect understory saplings and brush. Round bales can be collected, transported and handled like round bales of hay. The third technology, rectangular balers is the subject of this patent application.
 The present inventors have reported their progress under a federal contract from the USDA CSREES SBIR program to develop better methods to collect and transport woody biomass (Dooley 2006; Lanning 2007; Dooley 2008; Dooley 2009). Our goal has been to engineer more efficient recovery and transport of woody biomass to second-generation bioenergy and biofuel plants.
SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION
 We have elucidated the three rheological properties of woody biomass material requisite to predictably and reproducibly bale woody biomass at preselected optimum transportation densities while minimizing fossil fuel consumption during baling, handling, and transport.
 First, we have empirically determined the baled bulk density (lb/ft3) v. platen pressure (psi) curves for woody biomass at various moisture contents. These relationships indicate the target compression platen pressures that will compress woody biomass to predetermined transport densities.
 Second, we have empirically determined that woody biomass material compressed to optimum transport densities has a Poisson's ratio effect of about 11%. This value is required to determine the minimum mechanical strength of baling chamber sidewalls for producing woody biomass bales of optimum transport densities.
 Third, we have observed that green woody biomass material compressed to optimum transport densities has a coefficient of friction against steel baling chamber walls of approximately 0.60. This value is necessary, in conjunction with both the target compression platen force and the Poisson's ratio, to determine the minimum platen pressure required to form and eject a compacted bale of woody biomass from the baling chamber.
 These three discoveries permit one of ordinary skill to design and manufacture robust, lightweight and economical rectangular balers to produce woody biomass bales optimized for transport on conventional semi-trailer trucks to bioenergy and biofuel plants.
 Accordingly, the invention provides a woody biomass baler having a baling chamber adapted to receive woody biomass material and a compression system adapted to compact the material into a rectangular bale in the chamber, wherein the baling chamber has a front wall that acts as a reciprocating compression platen corresponding in dimensions to the width W and height H of the bale, opposing upper and lower walls corresponding in dimensions to the length L and either of the W and H of the bale, and opposing sidewalls corresponding in dimensions to the L and the other of the W and H of the bale, wherein each chamber wall selected from among the upper wall, the lower wall, and each of the sidewalls can withstand a minimum distributed force perpendicular to the selected wall of at least (0.11×Pp psi×Aw) pounds, wherein Pp is the maximum pressure that the compression system can apply to the material and Aw is the area of the selected wall expressed in square inches.
 In a representative embodiment, each of the selected chamber walls is designed and fabricated to withstand a distributed force perpendicular to the selected wall of between (0.11×Pp psi×Aw) pounds and (0.5×Pp psi×Aw×SF) pounds, wherein SF is a safety factor calculated by dividing the predetermined design failure load of the compression platen by Pp.
 In a representative embodiment, the compression system can apply at least one platen pressure between 26 psi and 126 psi to the material. Preferably the compression system can apply at least one platen pressure between 46 psi and 86 psi to the woody biomass material in the baling chamber. Most preferably, the compression system can apply at least one platen pressure between 50 psi and 71 psi to the material.
 The woody biomass baler can include a loading system, e.g., a knuckle boom loader, adapted to introduce woody biomass material into the baling chamber, an ejection system adapted to move the bale from the chamber, and may incorporate a tying system adapted to automatically tie the bale of compacted woody biomass material.
 The baling chamber may be open-ended, or closed by a back wall corresponding in dimensions to the front wall. The back wall may be reversibly opened, in which case the ejection system should apply a force greater than or equal to (0.132×Pp ×L)(H+W) pounds to move the bale through the opened back wall, wherein L, H, and W are expressed in inches.
 At least one of the chamber walls selected from the sidewalls, the upper wall, and the lower wall may be reversibly opened, in which case the ejection system should apply a force greater than or equal to (Pp×W)(1.2H+0.132L) pounds to move the bale through the opened sidewall, and/or greater than or equal to (Pp×H)(1.2W+0.132L) pounds to move the bale through the opened upper or lower wall, wherein W, H, and L are expressed in inches.
 For stackability, either or both L/W and L/H should be equal to or greater than 1.5, and preferably equal to approximately 2.
BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWING
 FIG. 1 shows a perspective view of a representative woody biomass bale;
 FIG. 2 is a graph that contrasts the density v. platen pressure curves of woody biomass (at 45% wwb, 30% wwb, 15% wwb, and dry weight) and timothy hay (at 15% wwb);
 FIG. 3 is a graph that contrasts the Poisson effects of woody biomass and timothy hay;
 FIG. 4 is an elevated view of a representative woody biomass baler;
 FIG. 5 shows the baler chamber of FIG. 4 with open doors; and
 FIG. 6 shows the baler chamber of FIG. 5 with closed doors.
DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE PREFERRED EMBODIMENT
 The terms "parallelepiped" and "rectangular" are used interchangeably herein to refer to a solid shape bounded by six substantially square or rectangular faces in which each pair of adjacent faces meets in a substantially right angle.
 The term "bale" as used herein refers to a parallelepiped-shaped bundle of compressed and bound biomass. FIG. 1 depicts a representative bale 10 of compressed woody biomass 12 bound with a plurality of loops of binding material 14, 16. Dimension W is perpendicular to the plane created by the binding material that encircles the compressed woody biomass. Dimension H is perpendicular to W and in line with the binding material. Dimension L is perpendicular to the plane created by W and H. Binding material is parallel to L. Representative binding materials include wire, polypropylene twine, and banding straps. For stackability, bale compression is preferably along the L axis, most preferably with the biomass material disposed substantially along the W axis, transecting the binding material plane.
 The term "woody biomass" as used herein refers to all parts of trees, shrubs and woody plants useable as industrial feedstocks for fiber, bioenergy, and biofuels, including timber harvest slash and land clearing debris, small-diameter trees, shrubs and brush, dedicated energy crops like willow and poplar, tree service prunings, and residential green waste.
 The term "cellulosic biomass" as used herein refers more generally to encompass all plant materials compacted/compressed by baling for use as industrial feedstocks, including woody biomass, energy crops like switchgrass, miscanthus, and hemp, and agricultural crop residues including corn stover.
 The term "green weight" as used herein refers to the weight of freshly harvested woody biomass that has substantially the same moisture content, typically 40-55 percent wet-weight-basis (% wwb), as the stranding plants. The term "equilibrium weight" refers to the eventual weight of woody biomass that has dried in bales under ambient conditions to an equilibrium moisture content, typically 10 to 18% wwb in the Pacific Northwest and less that 10 % wwb in drier regions. "Dry weight" as used herein refers to the weight of woody biomass after drying to constant weight at 221° F. (105° C.).
 The term "semi-trailer truck" as used herein refers to an articulated rig consisting of a towing engine ("tractor") coupled to a single "semi-trailer" (a trailer without a front axle), or to a "double trailer" consisting of a semi-trailer coupled to either another semi-trailer or a "full trailer" (a trailer supported by front and rear axles), or to a `triple trailer" consisting of a semi-trailer coupled to two full trailers. As used herein, the term "semi rig" refers to a tractor & semi-trailer combination, commonly a 10-wheeled tractor coupled to an 8-wheeled trailer; and the terms "double rig" and "triple rig" refer to tractors pulling two and three trailers, respectively. The term "fleet" refers to a group of semi-trailer trucks owned or leased by a business or government agency.
 The overall weight of a particular semi-trailer truck empty of cargo is referred to herein as "curb weight."
 The term "cargo" as used herein refers to a plurality or multiplicity of parallelepiped bales of woody biomass that are loaded for transport on or in the one or more trailers of a semi-trailer truck. The term "payload" refers to the weight, volume, and density characteristics of the cargo. The terms "payload weight" and "payload volume" refer to the weight and volume of the cargo, respectively.
 The term "Gross Vehicle Weight (GVW)" as used herein refers to the total weight of a semi-trailer truck and everything aboard, including cargo. The federal maximum GVW for semi-trailer trucks is 80,000 pounds. Double and triple rigs must additionally comply with the following federal bridge protection formula.
 The term "Federal Bridge Gross Weight Formula" as used herein refers to FMC SA regulation §658, which is hereby incorporated by reference in its entirety. This regulation limits the amount of weight that can be put on each of a double or triple rig's axles, and how far apart the axles (or groups of axles) must be to legally carry a given weight, expressed by the formula:
wherein W is the overall gross weight on any group of two or more consecutive axles to the nearest 500 pounds, L is the distance in feet between the extreme of any group of two or more consecutive axles, and N is the number of axles in the group under consideration.
 As used herein the terms "maximum transport volume" and "maximum transport weight" refer to the maximum volume and weight of cargo, respectively, that a particular semi-trailer truck can legally transport. The maximum transport weight is determined by subtracting the curb weight of the semi-trailer truck from the maximum allowable GVW of the truck. The term "optimal transport density" refers to the computed density (weight/volume) of a cargo that has both the maximum legal transport volume and the maximum legal transport weight. Such an optimized cargo is said to "cube out" the legal payload of a semi-trailer truck.
 In ordinary circumstances, a tractor-coupled semi-trailer will weigh about 35,000 pounds, leaving about 45,000 pounds of payload capacity. The cargo space available on or in a semi-trailer is normally 48 or 53 feet long and about 8 foot 4 inches wide and 8 foot 10 inches high. These general constraints give an optimal transport density range of 12.7 to 11.5 lb/ft3. In practice, however, maximum transport weight and volume limits depend specifically on a particular semi-trailer truck's curb weight, trailer configuration, and travel route on federal and state highways.
 For example, the California Department of Transportation has relatively strict regulations on weight and size limits for highway transportation vehicles. Semi-trailers are limited to 48 or 53 feet maximum length; and each trailer in a double trailer cannot exceed 28 feet 6 inches in length. For illustrative purposes, we describe an optimized bale size and density for cargo transport on a 48-foot semi-trailer in the state of California. Considering payload volume, a 14-foot maximum allowable load height leaves 8 to 9 feet of useable cargo space. We assume an 8-foot cargo height and an 8-foot loading width, leaving buffer spaces for pallets, tarps, and straps. The exemplary volume, then, of cargo that can be transported on a semi-trailer in California (without special permits) is 48 ft×8 ft×8 ft equaling 3072 cubic feet.
 With this information we can determine appropriate bale sizes for truck transport of woody biomass on California highways. Table 1 lists several suitable bale configurations, sized for different businesses and woody biomass sources.
TABLE-US-00001 TABLE 1 Bale size 48 ft. trailer payload L × W × H L × W × H # Bale Baler size (inches) (bales) bales L/W ratio Landscaper 24 × 16 × 24 24 × 16 × 4 576 1.5 Small contractor 48 × 32 × 32 12 × 3 × 3 108 1.5 Large contractor 64 × 48 × 32 9 × 2 × 3 54 2.0 Forest baler 96 × 48 × 48 6 × 2 × 2 24 2.0
 For example, 54 woody biomass bales sized 64×48×32 inches will cube out the exemplary 3072 ft3 payload volume of a 48-ft semi trailer. To maximize packing efficiency, bale configurations are preferably selected so that trailer dimensions are evenly divisible by bale dimensions. In this example the trailer length is divisible without remainder by the bale length dimension, and likewise trailer width by bale width, and trailer height by bale height.
 Woody biomass bales should preferably have an L/W and/or L/H ratio(s) of at least 1.5, as we have observed that smaller ratios tend to produce egg-shaped bales rather than consistently stackable, rectangular bales. Most preferably, L/W and/or L/H ratio(s) of approximately 2 advantageously permit the bales to be stably interlocked on pallets or in stacks. We note that finished bale dimensions will increase by the amount of stretch in the chosen binding material, e.g., polypropylene twine stretches under load more than steel wire. Consequently the baling chamber walls (discussed below) can be dimensioned accordingly shorter, to accommodate the anticipated stretch of particular binding materials.
 Considering payload weight, a typical semi rig payload legal in California is 44,000 to 48,000 pounds. Combining these volume and weight constraints gives an optimum transport density range of 14.3 to 15.6 lb/ft3. Assuming a maximum payload weight of 45000 lbs, 54 woody biomass bales sized 64×48×32 inches with an average green density of 14.6 lb/ft3 will cube out the truck. FIG. 2 indicates that green woody biomass can be compressed to a density of about 14.6 lb/ft3 by a platen pressure force (i.e., baler system pressure applied to the platen times the area of the platen in inches) of about 50 psi. However, transporting such green woody biomass bales over long distances would be far from optimal, as this green payload would contain some ten tons of noncombustible water. Drying the bales prior to long-haul transport significantly increases the energy content of the woody biomass payload, but to predictably cube out the truck with dried woody biomass the green woody biomass must be baled at predetermined higher initial densities, for example as shown in Table 2.
TABLE-US-00002 TABLE 2 Bale at _% Bale Size: 64 × 48 × 32'' Baler 48 foot trailer payload wwb ship Vol Wt lbs/ Platen L × W × H # % % Btu at _% wwb (ft3) (lbs) ft3 Pressure (bales) bales lbs V W (×106) 1a 45 57 833 14.6 ~50 psi 9 × 2 × 3 54 45,000 86 100 222.75 45 1b 45 57 997 17.8 ~61 psi 9 × 2 × 3 54 45,000 86 100 283.5 30 1c 45 57 1148 20.5 ~71 psi 9 × 2 × 3 54 45,000 86 100 344.25 15
 In Table 2, row 1a summarizes the exemplary green bale cargo: fifty-four 64×48×32 inch bales of green woody biomass, compressed to about 14.6 lb/ft3, will essentially cube out the maximum transport weight while filling about 86% of the available transport volume (3072/(48×8.3×9)). At an energy value of 9,000 Btu per dry weight pound, this green bale cargo has total energy value of about 222.75 million Btu.
 Row 1b indicates that green woody biomass (45 % wwb) that is baled to about 17.8 lb/ft3, at a platen pressure of about 61 psi, will dry down to the maximum payload weight at about 30 % wwb. The resulting cargo has total energy value of about 283.5 million Btu.
 Row 1c indicates that drying green bales down to 15 % wwb increases the energy content of the cargo to 344.25 million Btu, provided the green biomass is initially baled at a proportionally higher density (˜20.5 lb/ft3, at ˜71 psi) to accommodate the greater water loss during dry down to the predetermined maximum payload weight.
 In this manner, by selectively producing relatively dense green woody biomass bales for drying to predetermined optimum transport densities, especially by natural evaporation and transpiration under ambient conditions, the long-haul highway transportation and fuel costs per unit energy delivered can be greatly reduced and optimized.
 Additional economies can accrue during the baling process by limiting the strength (weight) and power (weight, size, noise, and fuel consumption) of the baler, as explained below, to achieve but not unnecessarily exceed an optimized transport density range selected to accommodate particular biomass types and trailer truck configurations.
 The experimental data reported herein was acquired in a bench-top lab baler constructed as disclosed in Example 1, and confirmed using a full-size woody biomass baler that had the requisite minimum strength and power requirements disclosed in Example 2. The full-size baler is described in Example 3.
Bench Top Lab Baler Materials and Methods
 Prior to designing and fabricating the bench-top lab baler, our literature review revealed insufficient prior data for the compression, expansion, and friction properties of compressed woody biomass needed to optimally design a woody biomass baler. By using a lab-scale baler rather than a full-scale machine, material and time were saved in testing and validating hypotheses. The scaling was modeled after the way forces and moments are scaled in homogeneous isotropic materials like steel and aluminum. Woody biomass under pressure can be approximated as an isotropic solid. The pressure-pressure relationships developed in the lab baler were incorporated as explained in Example 2 into the full-scale prototype design described in Example 3.
 The lab-scale combined baling and infeed chamber measured 68.8 cm (27 inches) long, of which 49.5 cm (19.5 inches) was the enclosed baling chamber. The platen and end wall were 29.2×29.2 cm (11.5×11.5 inches).
 The bulk of the lab baler structure was made from standard 1018 steel in the forms of 50×50×6.4 mm wall (2×2×1/4 inch) tubing and 50×50×6.4 mm (2×2×1/4) angle. The volume of the bale chamber and infeed chamber was encompassed by six sides. They consisted of three fixed sides, two sides that were part of the L shaped door, and the sixth side was formed by the compression platen. The bottom and right side both extended from the retracted platen to the end wall. While the corners of these sides were welded in place, the two rails of each side were formed by load beams that could sense force exerted perpendicular to the compression platen, either down or to the side. The opposite sides were formed by the door with the left side being full length, and the top being cut short to designate the infeed. The door was hinged along the lower left corner and clamped in two places opposite the hinge, one close to the infeed and one close to the end wall. The sides and ends of the chamber were slotted such that binding twine could be pushed or pulled around the bale in six places, three in each plane perpendicular to the platen motion. The platen and end wall each had nine evenly spaced posts to create the string passages around the ends of the completed bale.
 Hydraulic fluid was moved by a Haldex Barnes Power Unit model number 1400011, with a 1.5 kW (2 HP) motor capable of moving 95 cc per second (1.5 gpm) at up to 13.8 MPa (2000 psi). The compression cylinder was controlled by an open center, manual, monoblock valve. For safety, the valve was positioned such that the operator could not have hands in the infeed or baling chamber while operating the valve. Compression was facilitated by an 8.9 cm (3.5'') bore by 45.7 cm (18'') stroke 20.7 MPa (3000 psi) max cylinder. Maximum force was 85.6 kN (19250 pounds) and the cylinder fully extended in 30 seconds (1.5 cm or 0.6 inches per second). A pressure gauge and a pressure sensor were installed between the directional valve and the base of the cylinder, thus allowing the cylinder pressure to be monitored even when the flow from the pump stopped. A needle valve allowed a finely adjustable flow between the front and rear of the cylinder, and a ball valve allowed oil to escape from the front of the cylinder back to the tank when the direction control was in neutral. A second pressure gauge was located at the pump so pressure could be measured when the control was in reverse.
 A wheel type linear position sensor was used to record the position of the platen while hydraulic pressure (from which paten pressure was calculated) and side force (from which Poisson's ratio effect was calculated) were measured. Sensors outputs were recorded simultaneously at 15 times per second.
Engineering Constraints for Rectangular Woody Biomass Balers
 FIG. 2 discloses the range of compression platen pressures requisite to compress woody biomass of various water contents to predetermined transport densities. This information can be used in two ways. The water content of air-dried woody biomass, like old forest slash, can be determined to select an appropriate curve for correlating platen pressure with a predetermined optimum transport density. Alternatively, this information can be used to predict the weight loss resulting from drying green woody biomass bales to lower water contents. In either case the biomass baler's compression system can be routinely fabricated to target the corresponding range of platen pressures requisite to achieve a desired range of transport densities.
 In practice, expected bale densities are subject to some variability due to the inherent heterogeneity of mixed woody biomass materials. Nevertheless, by mounting a conventional load cell under the baling chamber, the weight of the woody biomass going into a bale can be monitored during loading and flake formation, and the platen pressure adjusted to achieve a completed bale of targeted density. Acceptable variations in bale density will tend to average out when the bales are loaded into multiple-bale cargoes.
 FIG. 3 discloses that the woody biomass exhibits a Poisson's ratio effect (PR) of approximately 11%. This physical property, which is substantially independent of water content, is required to determine the minimum mechanical strength of a baling chamber for producing woody biomass bales at the requisite platen pressures. The distributed force on the back wall is equal to the force of the platen (Pp×Ap), but the force resisted (Fw) by the other baling chamber walls must be at least equal to:
wherein Fw is the distributed load against any one of the chamber walls selected from among the upper wall, the lower wall, and either one of the sidewalls of the rectangular baling chamber, Pp is the maximum pressure that the baler can apply by the compression platen, and Aw is the area of the selected wall. Substituting for the observed Poisson's ratio of compressed woody biomass, then:
wherein Aw is expressed in square inches.
 In conventional practice, baler manufacturers will add standard factors of safety to such calculated design constraints, as described in the literature, e.g., Shigley 1963. For example, a Poisson's ratio value of 0.5 corresponding to that of solid wood (Wood Handbook 2002) may be selected to calculate an estimated upper strength limit, and a market-driven safety factor (SF) then added to the calculated result. SF is a predetermined design loading multiplier to ensure that the operational loading is not greater than the design loading. In a representative embodiment, such a calculated upper limit for sidewall strength (0.5×Pp×Aw) is multiplied by the identical safety factor that the manufacturer chooses to use for the compression platen, in which case SF as applied to the sidewalls is calculated by dividing the predetermined design failure load of the compression platen by the maximum pressure that the baler can operationally apply by the compression platen (Pp), such that the design upper limit of the sidewalls is ((0.5×Pp×Aw×SF).
 Bale ejection requires that sufficient force be applied against the bale to overcome the total frictional forces (Ff) that the compressed woody biomass applies to the chamber walls (typically steel) that contain it during ejection. We determined using our full-size baler that the coefficient of friction of compressed green woody biomass is approximately 0.60 and decreases as the water content of the biomass decreases. Optionally, coating the baling chamber walls with a low friction material will reduce the applicable Ff value.
 For ejection through an open or opened back chamber wall, the bale applies frictional forces against the upper wall, the lower wall, and the two sidewalls. For side ejection, the ejection system must overcome the frictional forces against the platen, lower wall, back wall, and upper wall. Top or bottom ejection systems would be designed to overcome the frictional forces against the platen, back wall, and sidewalls.
 The frictional force that the bale applies against any one of the chamber walls is expressed as Ff=Fn×Cf, where Fn is the normal force (calculated below) and Cf is the coefficient of friction of compressed woody biomass on the wall material.
 Considering rear ejection, the pressure (Pw) that the compressed bale applies against the upper, lower, and two sidewalls is equal to the platen pressure times the Poisson's ratio, or Pw=Pp×PR. Alternatively, Pw can be expressed as the normal force divided by the area of the wall, Pw=Fn/Aw.
 Assume that the area of the upper and lower walls is L×W; and that of the sidewalls is L×H. Then for each sidewall, Pw=Fn/(L×H), which converts to Fn=Pw×L×H. Substituting for Pw, then Fn=Pp×PR×L×H. Accordingly, for each sidewall:
Similarly, for the upper and lower walls:
In combination, then, the cumulative frictional forces during rear ejection are:
Ff total for rear ejection=2(Pp×PR×L×H×Cf)+2(Pp.time- s.PR×L×W×Cf).
 Pursuant to this disclosure, for woody biomass the Pp for optimum transport density is at least 50 psi, PR is 0.11, and Cf is 0.6. Thus, the rear ejection system should control the compression platen to apply at least the following force (in pounds, when L, W, and H are expressed in inches) to eject the bale through the back wall of the baling chamber:
Ff total for rear ejection (2(Pp×0.11×L×H×0.6)+2(Pp×0.11.tim- es.L×W×0.6) ((0.132×Pp×L×H)+(0.132×Pp×L.times- .W) ((0.132×Pp×L)(H+W).
 For side ejection, the platen and back wall are compressed to the platen pressure, and so for these "sides" of the ejected bale:
However, the Poisson's ratio effect still applies to the Ff values for the upper and lower walls, as calculated above. Thus, in combination:
Ff total for side ejection=2(Pp×W×H×Cf)+2(Pp×PR.time- s.L×W×Cf) (2(Pp×W×H×0.6)+2(Pp×0.11×L×- W×0.6) ((1.2×Pp×W×H)+(0.132×Pp×L×W- ) ((Pp×W)(1.2H+0.132L).
 Similarly, top or bottom ejection must overcome the frictional forces against the platen, back wall, and sidewalls. Combining these forces in the manner calculated above, the Ff total for top or bottom ejection of a woody biomass bale compressed to optimum transport density equals at least:
Ff=2(Pp×W×H×Cf)+2(Pp×PR.time- s.L×H×Cf) (2(Pp×W×H×0.6)+2(Pp×0.11×L×- H×0.6) ((1.2×Pp×W×H)+(0.132×Pp×L×H- ) ((Pp×H)(1.2W+0.132L).
 Most preferably, the baler compression system is configured to compact the woody biomass material with a force between 50 and 71 psi. This optimal range, for the most common case of delivery by highway-legal trucks, encompasses the exemplary dry-down strategies disclosed in the Table 2 above. The baler compression system will typically incorporate one or more hydraulic cylinders to advance the platen and thereby compact the woody biomass material within the baling chamber. The hydraulic system is preferably adjustable by conventional controls to encompass all or a substantial part of this optimal range, in order to permit the operator to select an appropriate platen pressure to achieve a predetermined bale density, taking into consideration initial moisture content, expected dry-down period, and mode of transportation.
 The invention accordingly permits an optimized woody biomass transport system including a fleet of semi-trailer trucks that are reversibly loaded at transport intervals with cargoes of parallelepiped bales of woody biomass, wherein the aggregate weight of the loaded bales is at least 80% of the aggregate maximum cargo weight capacities of the loaded semi-trailer trucks, and wherein the aggregate volume of the bales is at least 80% of the aggregate maximum cargo volume capacities of the loaded semi-trailer trucks. The trucks are preferably loaded to at least 85%, and most preferably to at least 90%, of their legal payloads. To further reduce transportation costs, the woody biomass bales should be dried before long-haul transport to average moisture contents of less than 30%, preferably less than 20%, and most preferably less than 15%.
 In this manner, conventional semi-trailer trucks can be routinely loaded with woody biomass payloads having energy values of at least 200 million Btu, for economical transport over highway distances of several hundred miles.
 One of ordinary skill in the art will readily understand and appreciate that the platen pressure v. bale density relationships disclosed in FIG. 2 are just as useful, mutatis mutandis, to predictably and reproducibly produce bales of woody biomass at predetermined lower transportation densities for short haul or barge transportation, as well as at higher densities for long-haul transport by rail or ship. The cost of hauling the extra air content of low-density bales by barge or short-haul truck is relatively low, and that incremental cost may be more than offset by lower fossil fuel consumption in the baling process. Trains and ships have more constrained payload volumes than barges, and maximum higher payload weights than trucks, and so their cargoes can be cubed out at maximum payload by baling at higher platen pressures, in the substantially constant slope regions of the woody biomass curves in FIG. 2. Accordingly, to accommodate such alternative commercial carriers the compression system can be powered to propel the compression platen within a range of force between 26 and 126 psi, and preferably between 46 and 86 psi. Moreover, FIG. 3 indicates that throughout the noted compression ranges the observed Poisson's ratio of 0.11 applies.
A Representative Woody Biomass Baling System
 FIG. 4 shows a representative woody biomass collection and handling system 18 designed to make and lift parallelepiped bales of woody biomass materials. System 18 is designed especially for small-scale fuels reduction projects in the true wildland-urban intermix zone (WUI), ranging from residential neighborhoods to twenty-acre parcels, for roadside vegetation management, and for prunings.
 A representative system 18 has a specialized baling chamber 20, grapple loader 22, and power pack 24 mounted on a street-legal trailer 26 provided with a conventional hitch 28 for towing by a one-ton dual-wheel flat-bed truck (not shown).
 Nomenclature with respect to equipment mounted on trailer 26: toward the hitch 28 is referred to herein as "front", and away from the hitch 28 as "rear". It will be understood that either or both the grapple loader 22 and power pack 24 may be mounted on the truck bed (not shown. Alternatively, the baling chamber 20 may be mounted on the front of the trailer 26, with the grapple loader 22 and power pack 24 at the rear. Or, all the equipment can be mounted on a flat bed truck or chassis. In all such transportable configurations, excessive weight must be avoided, and this can be accomplished by incorporating the engineering constraints described in Example 2 into the system design.
 Trailer 26 is `street-legal,` meaning equipped with rubber tires 29 and licensed for use on public roads, which imposes severe design constraints on the system 18: particularly weight (including provision for an undischarged bale), volume, and mass distribution including tongue weight.
 Considered front to rear, the power pack 24 includes an operator's seat 30 and controls 32, as well as an engine (not shown), fuel tank 34, battery (not shown), electrical box (not shown), hydraulic fluid reservoir 36, hydraulic fluid surge tank (not shown), and hydraulic fluid radiator 38.
 The grapple loader 22 has conventional articulating arms 40, 41 and a specialized claw 42. The arms 40, 41 are selected in length to load biomass from the ground into baling chamber 20, to lift bales discharged from baling chamber 20, and preferably to also extend across baling chamber 20 to rest claw 42 on the trailer bed 44 during transport and storage of system 18. The depicted claw 42 is configured for handling brushy biomass, and is provided with plate grippers 46 for gathering and collecting such materials that are on a solid surface. The steel edge 48 of each plate gripper 46 may be sheathed with polymer, rubber or other elastomeric material to compensate for slight unevenness in streets and graded areas, while also protecting the road surface from scraping. The grapple loader 22 may also be provided with hydraulic scissor shears or one or more chainsaws (not shown) to cut over-length pieces of woody biomass to fit into the baling chamber 20.
 The baling chamber 20 receives the woody biomass, compacts the biomass material into parallelepiped bales, and discharges the bales. The baling chamber 20 is preferably constructed of three separate modules, a front end assembly 50, an infeed chamber assembly 52, and a baling chamber assembly 54, that are bolted together by steel connection pieces 56. This modularity makes it convenient to repair or replace failed components. It also makes for low cost and convenient replacement of the baling chamber assembly 54 with alternative modules configured to produce shorter or longer bales. Also shown are steel feet 58 by which the modular baling chamber 20 is bolted to the trailer bed 44.
 Considering the modules front to rear, the front end assembly 50 has a welded steel framework 51 that anchors and supports two 7'' OD hydraulic cylinders 60 that attach to and move a compression platen 62 back and forth through a compression chamber housed within the infeed chamber assembly 52 and the baling chamber assembly 54.
 When retracted forward the compression platen 62 forms the front wall of the infeed chamber assembly 52. A pair of closeable hopper doors 66, 68 form the top of the infeed chamber assembly 52. When raised (as shown here), the hopper doors 66, 68 create an open hopper through which the grapple loader 22 can introduce biomass into the baling chamber. When closed, the hopper doors 66, 68 interlock together. The infeed chamber assembly 52 also has two sidewalls 64 and a floor plate (not shown in this view) that, together with the retracted compression platen 62 and closed hopper doors 66, 68, define the front end or infeed compartment of the compression chamber.
 Construction and operation of the hopper doors 66, 68 are disclosed in applicants' U.S. patent application Ser. No. 12/584,810, which is incorporated herein by reference in its entirety. Shown here is a single 2'' OD hydraulic cylinder 72 that moves the front hopper door 66, and two 2'' OD hydraulic cylinders 74 that move the rear hopper door 68.
 The baling chamber assembly 54 houses the rear end or compression compartment of the compression chamber. In the illustrated embodiment a rear wall or end cap that the compression platen 62 compresses biomass against is configured as a contingency door 74 mounted on lateral hinges 76. The contingency door 74 is normally secured shut by bolts 78 to the baling chamber assembly 54. The contingency door 74 can be manually opened, if need be, to expel any problematic biomass loads from the baling chamber, and for this purpose hydraulic cylinders 60 are designed to move the compression platen 62 at least the entire length of the compression chamber.
 The depicted baling chamber assembly 54 has a side discharge door 80 that cantilevers downward into a horizontal platform to receive discharged bales. A lower 2'' OD hydraulic cylinder 82 lowers and raised the discharge door 80, which is secured closed by an upper lock 84 controlled by a 2'' OD hydraulic cylinder 86.
 FIG. 5 shows the baling chamber 20 (minus the optional trailer) with both the contingency door 74 and the discharge door 80 opened to show the compression chamber 88 and ejection platen 90. Also shown in this view are the floor 92 of the infeed chamber assembly 52 and the upper and lower walls 94, 96 of the baling chamber assembly 54.
 FIG. 6 shows the baling chamber 20 with the hopper doors 66, 68, contingency door 78, and side discharge door 80 in the closed and locked positions.
 The contents of each of the following publications are incorporated in their entireties by reference herein.
 Makela, Markku. Oksaraaka-aineen kasaus ja kuljetus. [Bunching and transportation of branch raw material]. Folia Forestalia No. 237. Metsantutkimslaitos, Institutum Forestale Fenniae. Helsinli, Finland; pp. 1-19, 1975.
 Danielsson, B. O., et al., Compressing small trees and tree components. Report Nr119-1977. Garpenbert, Sweden, Department of Operational Efficiency, Royal College of Forestry, pp. 1-47, 1977.
 Carlsson, T., et al., Lastbilstransport av stubbar, trad., traddelar och hyggesavfall--resultat av studier 1977-79 [Trucking of stumps, full trees, tree sections and logging residue--Study results, 1977-1979], Redogorelse Nr 1 1980, Forskningsstiftelsen Skogsarbeten [Logging Research Foundation, Sweden], Stockholm, Sweden, 36 pages, March 1980.
 Sall, H-O., VI Development of harvesters for energy forest plantations, pp. 118-131, In: Proceedings of the International Conference "Harvesting and Utilization of Wood for Energy Purposes" at ELMIA, Johkoping, Sweden, Sep. 29-30, 1980.
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 Sinclair, A. W. J., Utilization of coastal British Columbia log sortyard debris, Technical Report No. TR-46, Forest Engineering Research Institute of Canada (FERIC), April 1981.
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 Savoie, P., et al., Development of a cutter-shredder-baler to harvest long-stem willow, ASABE Paper No. 061016, 9 pages, Jul. 9-12, 2006.
 Dooley, J. H. et al., Utilization of biomass from WUI fuels reduction: Biomass collection and handling from wildland-urban intermix projects on residential and suburban properties; Poster presented at SmallWood 2006, Richmond, Va., May 16, 2006.
 Lanning, D. N., et al., Engineering factors for biomass baler design; ASABE Paper No. 078047, presented at the 2007 ASABE Annual International Meeting, Minneapolis, Mich., June 17-20, 2007.
 Dooley, J. H., et al., Biomass baling into large square bales for efficient transport, storage, and handling; paper presented at the Council on Forest Engineering 2008: 31st Annual Meeting, Charleston, S.C., Jun. 22-25, 2008.
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 Shigley, J. E., Mechanical Engineering Design, McGraw Hill Book Company, NY, pp. 212-213, 1963.
 Wood Handbook--Wood as an engineered material, Forest Products Laboratory, USDA Forest Service, Madison, Wis., 2002, pages 60-61 and 64-65.
 While the preferred embodiment of the invention has been illustrated and described, it will be appreciated that various changes can be made therein without departing from the spirit and scope of the invention.
Patent applications by Christopher J. Lanning, Federal Way, WA US
Patent applications by David N. Lanning, Federal Way, WA US
Patent applications by James L. Fridley, Seattle, WA US
Patent applications by Forest Concepts, LLC
Patent applications in class Binder applying
Patent applications in all subclasses Binder applying