Effectiveness in early childhood development
Effectiveness is of paramount importance to all who are involved in development. In early childhood development, for example, we might ask whether it is effective to work with young children at all, and we can try to identify the sorts of benefits that result and for whom. We should also ask ourselves if we are effective in supporting work with young children: do we choose the most appropriate projects to support? And, if so, what is it that makes these projects appropriate?
Early Childhood Matters the bulletin of the Bernard van Leer Foundation FEBRUARY 1998 NO.88 Bernard van Leer Effectiveness: the state of the art Foundation Alternative perspectives on ECD Spain: playing my part Standing up for fairness Developing a culturally appropriate curriculum Mexico: educational experiences with women and girl children Venezuela: developing inter-sectorial networks Early Childhood Matters continues the Newsletter. It is published three times a year in February, June and October, by the Bernard van Leer Foundation, PO Box 82334, 2508 EH The Hague, The Netherlands. Tel: + 31 (0)70 351 2040, Fax: +31 (0)70 350 2373 email: email@example.com Contents Introducing Early Childhood Matters page 3 Editor Jim Smale Editorial Advisors Rien van Gendt In this edition 5 Liesbeth Zwitser and Gerry Salole Design & Production Jim Smale Effectiveness: the state of the art 8 Homemade Cookies Graphic Design bv The Hague, The Netherlands Work featured in Early Childhood Matters is not necessarily funded by the Bernard van Leer Foundation. The views expressed are those of the individual authors and not necessarily those of the Foundation. Judith Evans Alternative perspectives on ECD: communities at the forefront 12 Fred Wood Spain: playing my part 18 Fina Miragaya Paz Material from Early Childhood Matters may be reproduced or adapted without permission, provided it is not distributed for profit. It must be attributed to the original author(s), Early Childhood Matters and the Bernard van Leer Foundation. Standing up for fairness: activism with young children 20 Louise Derman-Sparks Developing a culturally appropriate curriculum 24 Jill Mitchell Mexico: educational experiences with women and girl children in rural, indigenous communities If you are interested in contributing to Early Childhood Matters, please contact the Editor for a preliminary discussion and to obtain a copy of our `Guide for Authors'. Contributions must be related to early childhood development and should draw on direct practical experience with young children, their families and communities. Please note that the Foundation does not pay for contributions because Early Childhood Matters is generally distributed free of charge. Please also note that we allow free copying for non-commercial purposes. 28 Martha Patricia Pimentel Garcia Venezuela: developing inter-sectorial networks 33 Jes�s Leonardo Yanez New Foundation publication: Samenspel � mothers speaking 38 Joanna Bouma The 1997 Oscar van Leer Award 38 40 cover photo: `Just playing' (the Netherlands) courtesy of the `Samenspel' Project (an entry for the Poster Competition) Results of the 1997 Poster Competition Sonja Wehrmann inside front cover: `Fun outdoors' (South Africa) photo: Jan Stegeman ISSN 1387-9553 Introducing Early Childhood Matters This edition of Early Childhood Matters, the first under a new name and wearing new clothes, is actually the eighty-eighth edition of the Bernard van Leer Foundation's periodic Newsletter. It acknowledges and confirms the evolution of the Newsletter from an in-house publication addressed solely to Foundation-supported projects and staff, to a significant periodical addressed primarily to practitioners in the field of early childhood development (ECD). It also signals our resolution to rethink our products and to improve our performance in accentuating relevant experiences in ECD, and in disseminating them widely to practitioners and policy makers. At the same time, we have grasped this opportunity to redesign the format so that we can reflect a more contemporary, uniform, accessible and relevant feel. The new look inevitably heralds some changes. The first is perhaps not so much a change as a significant enhancement: through surveys, many of our readers have made it clear that they particularly value articles written by project staff and other practitioners that draw directly on their experiences with young children. We will continue to publish these. However, we would also like to generate responses and reactions to the articles, and thereby to open up debates. If we have learnt anything in the years that we have been committed to early childhood it is that there is rarely just one right way to do something. Other perspectives are always needed and our readership � mostly practitioners and policy makers themselves � must provide these. The second change is to make more regular use of outside authors. This will help us to present a range of different perspectives and approaches, including some from the range of disciplines associated with early childhood development. Ideally, these authors will be able to combine practical, first hand experience with a more comprehensive perspective. However, we will not always agree with the views expressed. This first edition of Early Childhood (China) `Hebei Province rural Preschool Programme' photo: Rien van Gendt B e r nard van Leer Foundat ion 3 Early Childhood Matters (Namibia) photo courtesy of Oxfam, copyright Glenn Edwards (an entry for the Poster Competition) Matters gives a flavour of the range of articles that we will be publishing. The third change is to utilise Early Childhood Matters as the primary vehicle to share pertinent and insightful perspectives on an issue that is of central importance to all who are concerned with development: `Effectiveness'. By that we mean: `What has been tried? What works? What doesn't?' The Foundation anticipates seriously and profoundly exploring this overarching issue from an ECD perspective, through this periodical. Thus we expect to explore effectiveness through concrete themes in which early childhood projects have gained considerable knowledge and insight. In order to do justice to the fact that all of these are multi-faceted, we have decided that we will explore each theme over several editions of Early Childhood Matters. This allows for adequate mapping, a crucial element of which will be the inclusion of the reactions, perspectives and insights of our readers. Another change is to give increased prominence to photographs of early childhood work. For these photographs we are indebted principally to the projects that the Foundation supports. Finally, let me say that it is very important to us to keep carefully attuned to the needs of our readership. To do this we will be establishing a Resonance Group that will systematically provide critical feedback. In addition, we welcome your criticisms and inputs to help us develop Early Childhood Matters further. The knowledge, experiences, insights, reactions and lessons learnt, especially of practitioners engaging with and for young children, are essential if we are to produce a periodical that is useful to you. Rien van Gendt, Executive Director Bernard van Leer Foundation In this edition `Promesa/Choco 111' project In this first edition of Early Childhood Matters we are focusing on a issue that is of paramount importance to all who are involved in development: `Effectiveness'. In early childhood development (ECD), this could be taken in many ways. For example, we could look at whether it is effective to work with young children at all, and we could do that by trying to identify the sorts of benefits that result and for whom. We could also look at how effective the Foundation is in supporting work with young children � for example, do we choose the most appropriate projects to support and, if so, what is it that makes these projects so appropriate? Early Childhood Matters will always draw most of its material from actual work with children, their families and their communities. We are therefore staying close to the practice in a range of articles, each of which has been written by someone with a great deal of experience in his or her particular area, and who has very clear ideas about what is effective in ECD and why. The first two articles are intended to guide the construction of programmes of work. We start with Judith Evans, Director of the Consultative Group on Early Childhood Care and Development. She uses her unique position at the centre of a comprehensive early childhood network to identify basic social principles, principles of child development and learning, and operational principles, each of which she puts forward as essential components in effective programming. In doing so, she invites a number of questions. For example: are all of these components always appropriate in all settings? What might have to be dropped? What might have to be added? (page 8) Fred Wood, Director of Education of the Department of Programs, Save the Children Federation, USA, then takes us from global theory through his reflections about what has actually happened in practice over the past decades, and what this means for effectiveness today. Drawing on experience, he concludes that programmes must acknowledge that children, rich or poor, live in and respond to complex and varied environments; that parents and communities must be regarded as key resources; and that ECD programmes must be supported and sustained as part of a broad network of community services. (page 12) But how effective are such approaches likely to be? In the third B e r nard van Leer Foundat ion 5 Early Childhood Matters (Portugal) `Isolated schools' Project photo: Jim Smale article we are fortunate to have a first hand perspective from Fina Miragaya Paz, a mother who, with her four children, has participated in the `Preescolar Na Casa' (Pre-school in the home) project, Spain, for 14 years. She shows that effectiveness means bringing about positive changes for people and their communities, changes that are not always predictable and cannot therefore be planned for. In many important ways, her article is a vindication of approaches that demand the full participation of parents and communities, and that set ECD close to the heart of wider development. It is also a testament to her own dedication to the well-being of young children and to her community over many years. (page 18) The next three articles discuss strategies or strategic approaches in particular contexts. For example, Louise Derman-Sparks, as Director of the `Anti-bias Leadership' project, USA, takes the view that if ECD work is to be effective, it must include work on racism and bias. She explores the ways in which racist behaviour invades many areas of young children's lives in the USA, and then goes on to offer guidelines for direct action. For her, that direct action necessarily involves the participation of children and their families. Again, many questions will arise, especially for those working in cultural settings that offer young children very different environments and experiences. (page 20) For their part, Jill Mitchell, Director of Early Childhood Teacher Education Programmes at the University of Waikato, New Zealand, and Paula NimpunoParente of the Foundation's Africa Desk, explore the complexities of developing an effective national curriculum for ECD in multicultural societies. Jill Mitchell was obliged to sometimes rely on her understanding of the views of Maori and Pacific Islander cultures for the purposes of this discussion. She demonstrates that there are core elements in the curriculum that can and should be sustained in all cultural settings. She also shows that a multicultural curriculum can remain cohesive, even when it is designed to be extensively revised and modified locally in line with cultural needs and expectations. (page 24) Many of the indigenous peoples of Mexico suffer from the effects of poverty, migration, lack of job opportunities and social marginalisation. However, Martha Patricia Pimentel Garcia, Director General of the `Unidad de Capacitaci�n e Investigaci�n Educativa para la Participaci�n' (Organisation for Training and Research for Participation), Mexico, believes that effective project work must be based on even wider social and cultural realities. For her, what is also needed is an understanding of gender issues, and the attitudes, behaviour and values that are associated with these. She describes two recently developed projects that feature programmes B e r nard van Leer Foundat ion 6 Early Childhood Matters (Namibia) photo courtesy of Oxfam, copyright Glenn Edwards (an entry for the Poster Competition) of work centred on women and girl children. It will be interesting to see just how effective these projects will be in an environment that scarcely favours such an emphasis: we very much hope to feature a follow-up article from her as experiences are accumulated. (page 28) The last article is about meeting Venezuela's pledge to provide effective pre-school facilities for its children. Jes�s Leonardo Yanez, as National Director of Pre-school Education, believes that the only realistic way of doing this is by building on experiences gained in the informal sector. He shows that this means integrating informal approaches with the formal provisions that do exist, and making use of any and all local resources. He also takes a strong, practical line in describing and analysing some of the real and perceived difficulties that have arisen, looking especially at overcoming the credibility problems that informal approaches have encountered. (page 33) There are a number of threads that run through most of these articles � for example: the need to consider children in their particular contexts and environments; the importance of family and community in all aspects of programming; and the need to set early childhood development work within broader community development programmes. That does not mean to say that the articles offer definitive statements about what can or should be done in all situations; rather they are putting forward strongly argued positions that invite further debate. If you would like to contribute to this debate, please contact me, as Editor of Early Childhood Matters, at the address shown on the inside front cover. In future editions, we will continue to explore effectiveness through consideration of themes in which Foundation-supported projects have considerable experience. For example, we wish to feature experiences in designing, implementing and assessing culturally relevant approaches in ECD � after all, if an approach is not culturally relevant, is there any way in which it can be effective? In conclusion, I would like to draw your attention to an announcement about the results of a competition that we held last year to find photographs for the Foundation's series of posters. (page 40) This produced a marvellous response and I am very pleased to feature some of the entries in this edition of Early Childhood Matters. Jim Smale Editor, Early Childhood Matters B e r nard van Leer Foundat ion 7 Early Childhood Matters `A young San pre-school child ` (Botswana) photo: Matthias Hofer (an entry for the Poster Competition) Effectiveness: the s Fifteen years ago, it was necessary to dwell at length on answers to the question `Why invest in ECCD programmes?' because considerable scepticism existed regarding the value of early interventions. Moreover, children's experiences during the early years were thought by many to be the exclusive province of families and not the province of government or others. Today, scepticism, although still present to an important degree, appears to be diminishing, challenged by a growing body of knowledge on the benefits of early investment, by the development of successful programmes, and by new demands related to changing economic, social, demographic, political and educational conditions and ways of thinking. When it comes to effectiveness in early childhood care and development (ECCD), there is no single model that could be appropriately applied to all settings. However, it is generally accepted that programmes that expect to benefit young children must be embedded within their families, their community, and their cultural values; and that they must support children in the development of the physical, mental, and social abilities that will enable them to survive and thrive in later years. In this article, I will discuss some basic social principles, some principles of child development and learning, and some operational principles that it is now believed should guide programming. � Parents and families (however defined) � men as well as women � have the primary responsibility for the upbringing, development and education of their children. � Governments should establish a policy environment which enables families and communities to fulfil their responsibilities of child rearing and protection. statements have their roots in affirmations found in the outcomes of these world conferences and conventions: � Children, by reason of their physical and mental immaturity, need special safeguards and care. Children living in especially difficult circumstances need special consideration. � All children, without distinction of gender, race, language, religion or of any other kind, should have the opportunity to develop to their full potential. Social principles With respect to statements about social principles, it is useful to take into account the Convention on the Rights of the Child (CRC), the Declaration of the World Conference on Education for All (EFA), the Summit on Children, the Salamanca Declaration, and others. The following 8 Early Childhood Matters e state of the art Principles of child development and learning With respect to principles of child development and learning, effectiveness depends on understanding some key factors in child development. For example, we have to remember that from the moment of conception important developments occur that affect the brain, the physical body, and the chemistry of the child; and that learning is occurring at birth. Children are born with physical, social and psychological capacities allowing them to communicate, learn and develop. If these capacities are not recognised and supported they will wither rather than improve. We also have to remember that development has several inter-related dimensions, and learning occurs in each of these areas. The areas include physical, cognitive, social, spiritual and emotional development, each of which influence the other and all of which are developing simultaneously � progress It also means that interventions promoting social, emotional and spiritual development, as well as cognitive learning, need to provide At the same time, we also know that development proceeds in predictable steps and learning occurs in recognised sequences � although there is a great deal of individual and social variability in children's rates of development and styles of learning. This means that it is important for adults to use methods that fit with the child's growth pattern, not only in the cognitive area, but also in the affective, perceptual and motor areas; and that, in general, activities should provide the child with a developmentally appropriate challenge. in one area affects progress in others. Likewise, when something goes wrong in any one of those areas, it impacts all the other areas. For example: children who are malnourished may be less able to learn; children with learning problems frequently have low selfesteem; and so on. learning. Judith L Evans varied forms of learning, consistent with the culture, even while taking into account that there are recognised sequences and activities that facilitate development involves the child's construction of knowledge, not an adult's imposition of information. The skills that are the basis for constructing knowledge improve with practice. It is important for children to have opportunities to construct their own knowledge through exploration, interaction with materials and imitation of role models. Lastly, we cannot overlook the fact that children live within a context � family, community, culture � and that their needs are most effectively addressed in relation to that context. Support to the family and community can help children. Given the importance of the environment in promoting children's learning, interventions can also aim to improve the child's environment, perhaps by focusing on increasing family income, upgrading health and sanitation in the community, and enhancing the social and political setting. Fundamental to effectiveness is the fact that development and learning occur continuously as a result of the child interacting with people and objects in his or her environment. Here, the roles of adults (at home and in other settings) in supporting children's learning are to be emotionally responsive to, and involved with, children; and to provide them with opportunities to work with concrete objects, to make choices, to explore things and ideas, and to experiment and discover. Children also need opportunities to interact with peers and adults in an environment that provides them with security and acceptance. Closely linked to the above is the recognition that children are active participants in their own development and learning. Learning and related B e r nard van Leer Foundat ion 9 Early Childhood Matters Operational principles With respect to operational principles, given the nature of child development and what is known about the outcomes of quality ECCD networks that have been created as a result of the fact that many people belong to churches and religious organisations. When people feel that their current practices and beliefs are respected and recognised, it gives them confidence to entertain other ways of doing things. while at the same time recognising the social and individual variation in children's needs: it is neither necessary nor appropriate for all children to receive the same kind of early childhood services. identify needs and seek solutions; create ownership and accountability; encourage unity and strength within the community; enhance the probability that decisions will be implemented and that programmes will be maintained once initial outside support is withdrawn; and empower people to make decisions in relation to all aspects of their lives. programmes, the following principles need to be applied to achieve maximum benefits. Some of these are directly related to the principles of development and learning, while others are general principles that apply to ECCD be developed with the families A critical part of children's environment is the family. Support from and for the family is crucial to healthy growth and development. Thus in programming it is important to have an understanding of children within their natural environment. Children need to be understood within the context of their family (however that is defined); and, if it is going to provide the best possible care for its children, the family needs resources. Also, programmes must support parents in their parenting role. programmes as well as other social development programmes. ECCD be developed within a broad conceptual framework and form a part of a comprehensive, multifaceted strategy There is unity in children's needs. Therefore, ECCD programmes should: be developed with an understanding of the wider environment To focus only on children, family and community still limits what can be accomplished. These exist within a wider environment � that of the nation. The economic, social, political and cultural dimensions of the nation have an impact on whether or not children thrive. To provide appropriate programming for young children and their families, this total context must be taken into account. programmes should be begin with what exists and build from there Programmes are sustainable when they are built on the known factors/ experiences in people's lives; while programmes that introduce ideas and practices that are too foreign seldom take hold. ECCD part of a broad conceptual effort that addresses the needs of children from birth through the early primary years. Effectiveness requires integrated attention to children, and a maximising of resources through multi-dimensional programmes that combine health, nutrition, education and social actions. To do this, a variety of relationships can be established that build on what exists and help fill the gaps in services. programmes should be developed with the community A growing body of experience shows that community participation increases the effectiveness of most programmes. Community participation also allows build on the strengths of communities. These include: traditional family units and social structures that can be mobilised; rich traditional practices that are supportive of children's growth and development; the strong desire of parents to provide the best for their children; the desire of people for education and knowledge; and the provide equity in access While the aim is to provide universal attention to young children, there is special recognition of children living in conditions that put them at increased risk of delayed or debilitated be flexible This principle derives from a recognition of the continuity of children's experience and the importance of attending to all stages of development, extension of the services beyond what would be possible using only the budgets and resources of the public sector. Specifically, community-based programmes build local capacity to B e r nard van Leer Foundat ion 10 Early Childhood Matters The author: development. This may mean that the needier have readier access to resources. Judith L Evans is the Director is an international, of the Consultative Group on Early Childhood Care and Development (CG). The CG ensure quality A quality programme is one that is appropriate to the child's stage of development and addresses the needs of the child, while respecting individual differences. In seeking quality, it should be recognised that quality is affected by the motivation and training of programme personnel, the physical environment, the materials used, the curriculum, and the support available to providers. It is essential that quality not be lost as a result of trying to implement inadequately funded models and/or increase the coverage of proven models. Without quality costs will be incurred later on, in schooling and by society: low quality programmes are ineffective, deprive children of benefits, and represent a waste of resources. have sustainable benefits Every effort should be made to see that the gains a child makes within a programme are sustained. This means paying attention to where children have come from before entering a programme and where they will go after the programme. Without attention to the transitions in children's lives, the gains made in one setting can be lost in another. Attention to the transitions will help ensure a strong relationship between what happens to children in a programme in terms of their development and later measures of development or `success'. interagency group dedicated to improving the conditions of young children at risk, that grounds its work in a cross-disciplinary view of childcare and development. CG was launched in 1984 and its main reflect diversity This principle is derived from a recognition of the cultural diversity which exists within a given country. The actual form the programme takes will vary depending on local and regional needs and resources. Out of respect for this diversity, ECCD purposes are the synthesising and dissemination of information on early childhood care and development; and the fostering of communication among international donor agencies and their national counterparts, and among decision-makers, funders, researchers, programme providers, parents and communities. The goal is to strengthen programmes that benefit young children and their families. This article was adapted by the author from a much fuller treatment of the field of early childhood care and development that will shortly appear on CD-ROM. programmes will necessarily differ. employ a variety of strategies Individual and social variations, taken together with the changing nature of the child during the early childhood period, lead to the conclusion that there is no one programme formula. Complementary strategies should be developed and implemented to meet ECCD Conclusions Scientific research establishes the importance of promoting healthy development during the early years and demonstrates that programmes of integrated attention to early development offer an extraordinary opportunity to avoid or moderate developmental problems, bringing lasting benefits to individuals and society. The CG has a website on Internet that contains a very wide range of materials about all aspects of early childhood. The address is: www.ecdgroup.com. The CG also publishes The coordinator's notebook: be cost-effective Resources need to be used efficiently and effectively. Relatively low-cost, yet effective, programme options can be created that are economically feasible over time. In general, strategies that stress prevention are more costeffective than compensatory strategies. In many cases, an ECCD an international resource for early childhood development. Further details about any of these products can be obtained from Dr Judith L Evans, 6 The Lope, Haydenville, MA 01039, 268 7272, Fax: (+1) 413 268 7279. USA; goals. These include: providing support to the family; community development (empowerment) efforts; strengthening institutions that work with families; and advocacy for the implementation of national policies that are supportive of young children and their families. Tel: (+1) 413 component can be folded into an existing structure at marginal extra cost. B e r nard van Leer Foundat ion 11 Early Childhood Matters Alternative perspectives on ECD; Communities at the forefront Dr Fred Wood worked with the Bernard van Leer Foundation at senior level on programme development and operations for 21 years. This included 12 years in charge of operations and programmes, and four years as Director of Programme Development and Training; and culminated in three years as Deputy Executive Director of the Foundation. In 1991 he moved to the United States to take up a senior post with the Save the Children Federation, where he is now Director of Education, Department of Programs. AW Wood The case for early childhood development (ECD) has traditionally rested on one of two premises. The first premise perceived ECD as part of the systematic preparation of the young child for primary school, with the implicit aim of compensating for a supposed mismatch between the child's home background and the assumptions upon which primary schooling were based. The second premise viewed ECD as a substitute for the family, a protective environment that would liberate women in particular from the immediate childcare duty and allow rapid reintegration of new mothers into the work force. Whichever way it was perceived, ECD was a social welfare mechanism, protecting the child against inadequacies in family and community. Both views derive from the notion of the all-caring, all-providing state, whether this be capitalist France or socialist China. Except in a few rare instances � for example, Mexico's national programme of `non- scholarised' early childhood education directed at mothers of children in the first two years of life � the importance of ECD as a systematic effort to positively influence children's development at this crucial stage has seldom been acknowledged as a feasible programmatic goal. In consequence, the critical significance of the earliest years of life as a fundamental adjunct to fullest brain development as the foundation for learning capacity and competence, remains a largely untouched area of endeavour. Ironically, over the past twenty years this has coincided with a major increase internationally in the number of programmes directed at infancy, largely under the heading of `Child Survival', and spearheaded by UNICEF and other international agencies. These programmes have largely sought to meet physical needs, and have largely excluded those psychological and social development activities that would, in practice, enrich and strengthen the impact of such programmes. Missed opportunity Several background factors illustrate the extent of this missed opportunity. The primary factor is that brain research in recent years has gone even further in increasing our understanding of the relative importance of the earliest years, underlining the fact that we may be too late when pre-school interventions are predominantly focused on four and five year old children. On a more practical level, a second factor is that traditional early childhood development programmes � typified by the Bernard van Leer Foundation's efforts at constructing `model' preschool centres in South Africa in the 1970s � reveal a pattern of high-cost, infrastructure-heavy approaches, with curricula laid down by highly qualified professionals and propagated through service delivery normally demanding high levels of professional knowledge. For policy makers in poor countries this conventional stereotype rules out ECD programmes as a serious programme option. B e r nard van Leer Foundat ion 12 Early Childhood Matters (Botswana) photo: Matthias Hofer (an entry for the Poster Competition) The third factor that I will deal with here, is that prevailing ECD models frequently do not include the family or community. Yet research has increasingly emphasised the crucial importance of family and community sharing in the early development of young children. Indeed the so-called daycare model often sought to accommodate the absence of parents and, by definition, the overriding importance of the employment needs of adults. The emergence in mainland China of residential daycare, catering for young children throughout the working week, is significant in this respect. Policy makers and ECD ideologically motivated countries. When efforts are made to pass these costs on to the consumer, these programmes become inaccessible to families whose first priority is meeting basic needs (former Soviet Union countries provide many examples of this). The second reason is that they are seen to have a narrow focus on preacademics, and this does not go far enough in meeting the needs of children in circumstances where the effects of poverty are characterised and magnified by poor nutrition, disease and stressful psycho-social environments. The third reason is that ECD programmes often lack significant parent and community involvement � they are seen to be ignoring children's first educators, and readily available and highly effective local resources. The evidence is already clear that the direct involvement of adult and community members in ECD efforts has beneficial effects on adult and These are the kinds of arguments that point to the fact that, after forty years of theorising and modelling, in the eyes of many policy makers the case for ECD is at best still not proven. There are several reasons for this. First, as I have said, the costs of providing centrebased, academically oriented preschools are seen to be prohibitive, except for the wealthiest and most B e r nard van Leer Foundat ion 13 Early Childhood Matters community development, as well as on the ECD programmes themselves. Save the Children's recent experience in Nepal and Thailand � where, significantly, programmes are tightly focused on infancy � strongly suggests include six-year-olds. An additional `preparatory' summer programme of a few weeks only is offered so as to acclimatise children to primary school. This significant national effort, heavily supported by the international banks, " The programme has investigated how traditional childcare skills can be enhanced. that reinforcing ECD efforts with complementary non-formal adult education has a multiplier effect on both participation and impact. At policy level, the implications of missed opportunities are often not fully realised. For example, conscious discouragement of parent participation is apparent in some ECD programmes, and this is also true at primary school level, especially in the world's poorest countries; while, in the Philippines, a systematic effort has been made by the government to lower the age of initial primary school enrolment so as to more likely to reflect the social, cultural and economic context from which they derive. Admittedly `community-based' is a much over-used term. Here it implies `conceived and planned by communities; engaging communities directly in delivery, supervision and maintenance of programmes; and impacting both communities and their children in a manner which draws upon what communities are'. Unlike traditional ECD approaches, community-based programmes � which by definition must include skills development and capacity building for adults � enable people to organise around the issues they themselves have identified and to generate their own `solutions'. Communities learn to draw on appropriate internal and external resources so as to build pertinent, quality ECD programmes. When local ownership is ensured, communities themselves will ensure the sustainability of programmes. On the impact side, community-based ECD programmes can provide multiple still remains tied to the flawed concept that the conventional primary school curriculum can be usefully pushed downwards into a lower age range, while ignoring the critical needs of infancy. A new perspective " What then is the basis for another perspective? Children, rich and poor, live in and respond to complex and varied environments. ECD programmes that are supported and sustained as part of a broad network of community services are likely to be more effective. Community-based ECD programmes are benefits to children, families and communities, if the calibre or quality of such programmes is a consequence of blending local culture and knowledge with external best practices. There are many such benefits. For example, by experiencing success in positively affecting their children's development, even the poorest families gain a sense of accomplishment and self-confidence which motivates them to address their own development needs. Women in particular find new ways of selfrealisation and indeed, in some cases, employment. Communities come to see themselves as action agents competently assessing their own problems and responding to them. The work of `Proyecto PROMESA' in Colombia's Choco Province, supported by the Foundation in the 1980s, is in many respects a trail breaker in this sense: it had a sharp focus on infancy, on mothers, and on spill-over effects in terms of complementary areas such as health and institution-building. Yet the totality of the PROMESA experience remains undocumented. B e r nard van Leer Foundat ion 14 Early Childhood Matters (South Africa) photo courtesy of the `Learning for all' Project (an entry for the Poster Competition) Principles into practice Applying these principles and lessons in established operational contexts around the world poses a particular set of problems to an international NGO like Save the Children. Based on the above, the fundamental thrust of the Save the Children programme is that local people and local groups, must do the job of service delivery themselves. Save the Children's prime task is to motivate them to that end. After that, it reverts to a supportive � perhaps discreetly formative � role, but does not assume the responsibility for service delivery: this rightly rests with others. On the whole, Save the Children's programme making has sought to adhere to these principles, bearing in mind the working reality in which it must operate. Market pressures oblige the organisation to deploy its stock of ideas in pursuit of opportunities in educational development as these arise: after all, the principles have broader relevance than to ECD alone. This is perhaps the sharpest lesson of the last few years. The Village School approach which has proven so successful in Mali, Malawi and Burkina Faso � and which is now spreading into Guinea, Morocco and Ghana � rests on these working premises, even if the Village School idea itself does not embrace the totality of the conceptual model. Despite this, there are opportunities to probe into how a strong early childhood focus can be grafted on to a programme which has its initial focus elsewhere, as in Mali and in El Salvador. In Mali, village-based childcare is a responsibility of grandmothers freed from the obligations of field work. The programme has investigated how traditional childcare skills can be enhanced. In El Salvador, local community education associations have embraced the idea of `school for parents' with the intention of strengthening the home background. Plans are now in hand to add an initial (South Africa) photo courtesy of the `Learning for all' Project (an entry for the Poster Competition) education component to the programme of community controlled primary schools. `Project Entry Point' in Nepal again reveals several of the principles more explicitly. Women form literacy groups (a two-year programme) after which they move on together in pursuit of collective economic development aims. The demands of their economic tasks oblige women's groups to devise local solutions to their childcare needs. Save the Children's role here became facilitative, providing training support to local level childcare groups. In Thailand, the same basic issue - that of women's increasing engagement in production - pushed Save the Children one step further. Thailand had formulated a national family development policy and programme. It had a nationwide scope and consciously addressed the needs of mothers and young children. In this instance, Save the Children's role became demonstrative, taking the stated national programme aims, piloting B e r nard van Leer Foundat ion 16 Early Childhood Matters " There are opportunities to probe into how a strong early childhood focus can be grafted on to a programme which has its initial focus elsewhere ... Some conclusions " I would like to finish with a brief recapitulation: � the task of selling the concept of ECD is far from complete and points, even more than in the past, to the need for effective interaction between those agencies committed to the concept; � too much emphasis has been given in the past to selling a product that may be dated � classical pre-school education; � the value of the critical first years of life has not been fully absorbed by programme makers and policy makers; � within its working realities, Save the Children has a strong commitment to infancy, both in itself and as a lever for wider-reaching change at community level; and � there is a new openness, at least on the part of the international development banks, to looking at the early years as an area for fresh programming, given the potential within these years for cross-sectoral programmes and inter-generational impact. Again it is crucial that the established agencies in the ECD field should assist the banks in their task, not merely in empty advocacy but also in design, implementation and evaluation. them in one district, sharing in the national level evaluation together with UNICEF and, as a result of this, formulating well-founded operational principles that would permit the effective nationwide operation of the programme. These illustrations point the way ahead for Save the Children in education. Restrictions and ways around them An international NGO with modest resources cannot aspire to deliver largescale programmes on its own, nor, philosophically, is this a desirable aim at this time. But such an organisation, with strong local connections and with the technical capability can: 1 Use its limited operational funds to engage in model development; and 2 Build upon demonstrated models to prompt or reinforce policy changes. The latter function requires engagement with the major funding agencies, public and private, to help shape emerging field programmes in line with the principles outlined. The strategic inter-institutional collaboration that was developed between the Bernard van Leer Foundation, UNICEF, UNESCO and Save the Children, around issues of leadership development in ECD in Africa, displays another dimension to this approach. In this case networks were combined to ensure that commonly held ideas on capacity development through ECD, strongly influenced a cadre of African ECD leaders in selected countries. It remains an open question whether the selected cadre, given its general identification with the traditional education service, was the ideal medium for this capacity-building effort. Equally questionable is whether the leadership development effort, as mounted, had the level of intensity needed to bring about the degree of change envisaged. On another level, the Uganda `Nutrition and early childhood development' programme, the El Salvador `Educaci�n inicial' (Initial education) programme (with Proyecto EDUCO), and Bolivia's `Programa de Atenci�n al Ni�o' (PAN � Programme of Attention to Children) are all examples of new partnerships for Save the Children. Indeed they go further: they are partnerships between a major NGO, international development banks and national governments, in which Save the Children's involvement � at both planning and implementation level � demands that it has the capacity to convince others of the value of working through community structures, and paying attention to the needs of the earliest years. An example from Africa is a powerful illustration of Save the Children's working principles in largescale application: the World Bank and the Ugandan Ministry of Planning agreed to set up a national programme, without a heavy infrastructure, to work through local frameworks to address the related physical and psychological needs of very young children in Uganda. This marks a distinct step forward. The author is a mother of four children who has been associated with the programmes of the `Preescolar Na Casa' (Pre-school in the home) project for over 14 years. This article is a presentation that she made at the `Segundo Congreso de educaci�n infantil familiar' (Second congress of child education in the family) that was organised by the Preescolar Na Casa in Lugo, Spain, in September 1997. The Preescolar Na Casa project operates in the north west of Spain, in the Autonomous Region of Galicia. This is a largely rural area that is characterised by migration from rural areas, poor employment prospects and isolation. Following many years of concentrating on children of three to six years, the project now focuses on children from zero to four. Its main concern is to enhance development possibilities for young children � particularly through providing socialising opportunities for the children, by helping parents to acquire knowledge, and by sharing new skills with them when necessary. Its major strategy involves reaching parents in their homes. This is done either directly, by organising activities in ordinary homes for small groups of children and their parents, or indirectly via media such as television programmes, thirty six of which are made and transmitted every year. B e r nard van Leer Foundat ion Spain: playing my part A mother's experiences in an ECD programme My name is Fina Miragaya Paz and my husband is called Manuel Caz�s Guiz�n. We live, together with my father-in-law, in Caz�s, a small parish in the area of Xermade. My husband and his father are carpenters, working in a small workshop that is part of the house. They make furniture and repair other items as well. We always had a small cattle business, just three or four cows: that is what the work of us women mostly has to be. However, following the illness of my mother-in-law and her death in January 1997, we sold them. We have four children: Jos� Manuel, 17 years old; twins, Angel and Miguel aged 15; and the smallest one, Laura, who is ten. All of them took part with me in the Preescolar Na Casa programme. Jos� Manuel and I started when he was three years old and at five he went on to the public school in Xermade. At that time, the person who was organising this was Jos� Louis Parga and he came to our house one day to invite us to take part in meetings about our children. We didn't know anything about `Preescolar Na Casa' in the beginning, so this seemed a bit strange to us. He also talked about meetings every 15 days � something that didn't seem to us to be very much. But he was accompanied by our parish priest who also encouraged us, so we decided to go just to see what would happen. The old school is a very cold place, so we soon decided to have the meetings in our house. This meant that other families came to Fina Miragaya Paz our house too. Over the following years, the twins and then Laura also took part. Laura started when she was very small � a bit less than one year old. But young children always learn to socialise easily with other children and with adults. She was always a very sociable child, even though children are very isolated in this area and hardly have any contact with other children. My husband and I have always been concerned about the education of our children, and we have always been ready to help them and have tried to be fully informed about how we can support them. I always found that the meetings organised by Preescolar Na Casa were a good place in which to get to know your neighbours. Well not just to get to know them, but to talk together, to deepen our friendships and improve our relationships. At the meetings we talked about themes related to the education of our children and about other themes that worried us. We played with the children and took part in A welcome chance to learn from others (Spain) `Preescolar Na Casa' project. photo: Jim Smale 18 Early Childhood Matters `Supportive parents make a big difference' (Spain) `Preescolar Na Casa' project photo: Jim Smale to help them find their way and to encourage them. � We learned that some children are very good at relating to both children and adults, and have no problems in communicating. � My husband belongs to the Parents' Association of the college, because we collaborate with the college in everything that is related to our children's education. � In the parish where we live, we promote community activities in the old school. For example: - Information technology courses that my husband and children attend; - Typewriting courses that my daughter Laura also attends; - English lessons; - Courses in sewing and dress-making; - Cooking courses; - Games tournaments; - Theatrical presentations and parties. I can honestly say that participation in the Preescolar Na Casa programme has been positive for my family! activities together. At the end of the series of meetings, we went on an excursion to get to know each other better, and to meet other parents and children from other parishes and townships. What did we get from the programme? � We learned to value education and dedicate ourselves more and in better ways to our children so that we could always help them as far as possible. � We learned to give importance to their early years. Many times it could seem that the children were very small and that they weren't really getting into anything, but if you just stopped to watch them, you would see that they learn from the moment they are born. � We learned to stand alongside our children at every stage of their education. Now our children are older and doing advanced work that we can't help them directly with. But they know that we are right there with them and with their problems: if they have any worries we are always ready By being involved in the programme, we have been helped in a number of ways, as the following examples show. B e r nard van Leer Foundat ion 19 Early Childhood Matters Standing up for fairness: activism with y The author is a long-time faculty member of Pacific Oaks College, California, and Director of the `Anti-bias Education Leadership project'. She has published extensively on anti-racist and anti-bias issues, always taking a strong and accessible line that her readers can consider in relation to their local situations and environments. She has just published a collection of narratives from teachers about using an anti-bias approach in their classrooms.1 Dr Derman-Sparks lectures, conducts workshops and seminars, and works as a consultant throughout the United States and in many other countries, including Australia, South Africa, The Netherlands, and the United Kingdom. 2 Promote each child's comfortable, empathic interaction with people from diverse backgrounds; 3 Foster each child's critical thinking about bias; and 4 Cultivate each child's ability to stand up for her or himself and for others in the face of bias. These four goals interact with and build on each other. For children to feel proud and confident about who they are, they need to develop a variety of ways for responding to prejudice and discrimination directed against themselves. For children to develop empathy and respect for diversity, they also need a variety of ways to interrupt prejudice and discrimination they see directed at others. Through activism activities children learn that injustice is not overcome by magic or by wishes, but by people making it happen and that each one of them can make it happen. Young children have an impressive capacity for learning how to act on behalf of themselves and others � if adults provide activities that are interpersonal racism and other forms of oppression in our society sabotage healthy development in these areas. Early childhood teachers and parents must help children learn how to resist these. One way to do this is to involve children in activism activities that are appropriate to their interests and abilities. The Anti-bias Curriculum, developed by a multi-ethnic group of early childhood educators in Southern California, suggests ways that teachers and parents can do so (Derman-Sparks and the ABC Task Force, 19892). The pre-school years lay the foundation for the development in children of a strong, confident sense of self, of empathy, of positive attitudes towards people different from themselves, and of social interaction skills. However, pervasive institutional and The four goals of the Anti-bias Curriculum are to: 1 Nurture each child's construction of a knowledgeable, confident selfconcept and group identity; relevant to them, and that match their developmental and cultural learning styles. Effective activities arise out of children's lives � including the history that their ethnic group has in working for justice � and fit their cognitive, emotional, and behavioural abilities. Choices about activities should take into account the various beliefs that families have about appropriate ways to take social action, and the beliefs that they have about the role of children in these activities. Time should first be taken to discuss with staff and parents the purpose of activism activities, and collaborate on which activities might best fit the children's experiences, age, and background. The underlying goal should be kept in mind: to provide children with opportunities to experience their ability to take action for themselves and others, thus fostering a habit of empowerment. The following guidelines have proved effective for those who are working with young children. 1 Be alert to unfair practices in your school or community that directly affect the children's lives. These can be related to any aspect of children's identity and B e r nard van Leer Foundat ion 20 Early Childhood Matters th young children well-being. They may directly involve an incident in the classroom/centre, or relate to a problem that comes from the children's wider community. Children may bring an incident to your attention. For example, a kindergarten teacher explains a method she uses: `I teach my children to call on friends when they are faced with an unfair situation. For example, last week two boys were playing on the rope swing, and two girls were waiting for a long time. The girls kept asking for a turn, and the boys ignored them. I watched and waited to see what would happen. Finally, the girls came to me and complained. I asked them, "What should we do? I could go and stop them, but that won't help you in the future." One girl then said, "Maybe we could get some of our friends to help us." I responded, "Yes, that's a good idea." The two girls collected about four children, girls and boys, and with their friends around them told the boys to give them a turn. The boys got off the swings and complained to me that they had been chased off. I talked with the two boys about what they had done to create the need for the girls to get their friends to help them'. Staff may raise an issue, sometimes spontaneously. For example, another kindergarten teacher wrote: Louise Derman-Sparks `One activity we did was to paint over a wall in a park that had racial slurs written on it. The day we saw it, I stopped the group and said, "Do you know what is written on this wall? It makes me very angry." I read the words, we talked about what they meant, how they are very hurtful to people. Then we talked about what we could do and decided to paint over the words, which we did the next day. We probably could have written to the Parks Department, telling them about the wall and what we did. It would have been interesting to see what kind of response we got'. Issues may also arise from larger community concerns. For example, children and families around the nation have joined early childhood teachers in `Worthy Wage Day' activities. (One strategy of a nationwide Worthy Wages campaign to improve salaries and working conditions of pre-school and childcare teachers.) While this issue springs from staff concerns, it directly affects the well-being of children and families. In Pasadena, children in several childcare centres learned what worthy wages meant, made posters and banners, and joined together at the steps of the City Hall. There, representatives of the city government and some of their teachers and parents spoke about why better wages are necessary for childcare centre staff. 2 Consider the interests and developmental abilities of your group of children. Will the problem grab their attention? Is the issue developmentally appropriate for them? Do the methods fit the way young children learn? For example, an activism activity in one pre-school programme began when one of the children was hospitalised because he had eaten a bottle of vitamins he thought was sweets. When the teacher, the following morning, explained why the child was absent, the children talked about confusing vitamins with sweets, and how that could happen. They decided that they didn't think it was fair for vitamins to look and taste like sweets, and dictated a letter to the manufacturer about their concerns. They also sent a copy of the letter to their families. (Of course, they also sent `Celebrating Children's Rights Week' (Venezuela) `PACOMIN' project B e r nard van Leer Foundat ion 21 Early Childhood Matters " ... children must believe themselves that a particular situation or incident is unfair for an activism activity to be an educational experience. " the method, or they may be worried about how the topic affects their child's feelings. For example, after addressing issues of discrimination, children may come home sad or angry. You and the parents can consider ways to address these issues together that are honest but do not undermine children's hope for the future. Ask for suggestions about what activities you might use, problemsolve together to reach a mutually acceptable solution, and invite the parents to participate in the activity. 5 Engage children in a `critical thinking' discussion about the problem. Remember that children must believe themselves that a particular situation or incident is unfair for an activism activity to be an educational experience. For example, four-year-olds in a child development centre located on the campus of a church-based college were looking through a new calendar that had arrived in the mail. One child remarked, `Those children do not look like us.' The illustrations depicted only white children. The teacher replied, `You are really thinking. Which children don't you see?' Children called out the names of several classmates. They decided that it wasn't fair, and that they didn't want to use the calendar. 6 Ask children for ideas about what they might do and include your own suggestions. Choose one or a few activities that are safe, possible, and fit the needs of your particular group of children. The children with the `calendar' problem decided to take pictures of their class and send it with a letter to the company that made the calendar, explaining their concerns and asking that next time the calendar shows all kinds of children. An additional action might be deciding to adapt the calendar, by pasting other pictures or photos over several of the months, so that more diversity is depicted. Actions should make sense to the children, even if they are not what adults would do about a particular problem. Of course, they should also be safe for them to do. One activity leads to further ones. When the children did not get a reply `Celebrating the opening of the Family Centre at Washington Beech' (USA) `Boston Housing' project `get well' pictures and letters to the recuperating child.) 3 Consider your own comfort. Is the issue one that you feel comfortable addressing? What type of activities do you prefer? There is a wide spectrum of possibilities � making changes in your own working space is one. For example, a group of four to six year olds created a `handicapped parking' space in their school's parking lot, and then made tickets to put on cars inappropriately parked in the space. Activities such as writing letters, speaking with people, circulating petitions, and participating in an appropriate demonstration, represent a second category of possibilities. Involving parents and other community people in reclaiming their culture and history is a third. In a programme for migrant families in California, staff collected favourite proverbs and stories from families and created books in Spanish, and in Spanish and English, for the children and for the parents. Children in a firstthrough-third grade, Los Angeles urban public school, interviewed activists in their community and then developed wall posters and books. These they photocopied to share with other children and with their families. 4 Consider the parents' comfort. Discuss with parents the reasons for activism activities and your approach to them. If parents express concerns, or disagree with activism activities in general, or with specific ones, take their concerns seriously. Try to find out what underlies their concerns. They may disagree with the topic of the activity, or perhaps with B e r nard van Leer Foundat ion 22 Early Childhood Matters `Celebrating the Day of the Child' (Colombia) `CINDE' project from the calendar company, they asked their teacher to call. When they still did not get a reply, the teacher told them about how adults use a petition to help make changes. The children liked the idea, wrote and illustrated their own petition and collected about one hundred names of college students on their campus. The petition got a reply � with a promise to try to make future calendars more diverse. Now we have to check to see if the promise was kept. 7 Document your activities. Take photos of your activities and ask the children to dictate explanations of what they did. Use them to make a wall chart or newsletter for parents. Make a book about `Taking Action for Fairness' that the children can read to each other. 8 Engage in adult activism activities yourself. Modelling the habit of activism in our own lives, whether we be teachers or parents, is essential for helping children to learn about the role of activism in life. Pre-school age children who see family members trying to change injustices that affect their family's life, are more likely to do the same when they experience an injustice directed against themselves or their friends. Examples include: organising with other people in the neighbourhood for a needed traffic light or cleaning up a neighbourhood park. As children move into elementary school, it is important for them to see family members joining with others to work for change on larger social problems, such as more housing for lower income families. This teaches empathy and responsibility for people beyond one's own family. Similarly, teachers who incorporate activism into their lives communicate that a pro-active stance towards injustice is a desirable trait. Teachers can tell children about educational activism activities in which they are engaged, such as working with other teachers in the school to get more books about various ethnic groups, or participating in a campaign to improve salaries for childcare teachers. They can also share their experiences in activism work that affects the larger community. In sum, if we practice what we preach, our message will resonate the tone of authenticity! 9 Always keep in mind that the underlying goal of activism activities with children is their empowerment, not the accomplishment of adult issues. Activities should foster children's education and growth in the needed life skills of critical thinking, taking responsibility for acting to rectify unjust situations, and becoming responsible citizens of a democratic society. The above guidelines were adapted from: Lee E, Menkart D, and Okazawa-Rey M (1997) Beyond Heroes and Holidays: A Practical Approach to K-12 Anti-Racist, Multicultural Education and Staff Development; Network of Educators on the Americas, Washington DC, USA. Notes 1. Derman-Sparks L and Brunson Phillips C (1997) Teaching/learning anti-racism: a developmental approach; Teachers College Press, Colombia University, New York. More details can be obtained from Teachers College Press, PO Box 20, VT 05495-0020, USA. 2. Derman-Sparks L and the ABC Task Force (1989) Anti-bias Curriculum: Tools for Empowering Young Children; NAEYC; Washington DC, USA. B e r nard van Leer Foundat ion 23 Early Childhood Matters `Learning traditional dances' (New Zealand) `Anau Ako Pasifika' project Developing a culturally a JM: When New Zealand became part of the British Empire, the Treaty of Waitangi was signed between the British Crown and Maori chiefs as representatives of the indigenous people. This was based on the concept of partnership and of Maori retaining ownership of land, rivers, and their language and other valued aspects of their culture. However, in the education system, the main delivery mode was English so many Maori never learned their own language. There have been whole generations now of people who have not learned their own Maori language. It's only over the last ten or fifteen years that there's really been a renaissance of the Maori language and the treaty has been referred to time and time again in an attempt to resolve issues. It has been fortunate that we had that treaty because now the land issues are in the process of being resolved through it, whereas in Australia the aboriginal people never had such a treaty. PNP: But what about access to resources? When we talk about recognition and respect, what sort of access do the Maoris have today to resources that were taken away from them? JM: Well, aside from land matters � and here I'm speaking on behalf of Maori, which is something I would rather not do � I would say that there is still a very strong feeling that they do not have access to all the resources. There are people who say that they have had the same as everyone else in terms of their education and their schooling system. The question is how appropriate that has been. PNP: You have been heavily involved in developing a culturally appropriate curriculum. Who developed the Maori version of this? JM: Both Maori and non-Maori. But the Maori were extremely strong in their work, and not just with people working with early childhood, but with the Maori community at large. They were very influential. I think that it is crucial to recognise that it is not a translation, nor a translation with adaptations. The principles, the strands and the goals are similar but the approach and philosophy reflect difference. PNP: What is the Maori concept of the individual? And of the family? How do they see their own part in it? I am asking you this because the curriculum contains several mentions of the development of the individual, but in our work with indigenous groups elsewhere we often find that there is no such thing as an individual. You are part of a group. Individuals are something new � they come with a particular system. JM: I can only give my perception, which of course is not a Maori perception, but in Maori culture the extended family and the community are the most important elements. That fits in very much with what you see in many other cultures. In the early childhood department of the university, members of the Maori group have far more responsibility outside their teaching roles than members of the non-Maori group do. They can be called upon by their community at any time and they see that as a huge responsibility. They have a different way Jill Mitchell (JM) is Director of the Early Childhood Teacher Education Programme at the University of Waikato, Hamilton, New Zealand. In this discussion with Paula Nimpuno Parente (PNP), of the Foundation's Africa Desk, and Jim Smale (JS), Editor of Early Childhood Matters, she explores aspects of the development and implementation of a national curriculum for early childhood development (ECD) in New Zealand, a country that is made up of a variety of different ethnic and cultural groupings. B e r nard van Leer Foundat ion 24 Early Childhood Matters y appropriate curriculum of working and responding to community. It places a lot of demands and responsibilities on the individuals: there is a value that is placed on people as individuals and a value placed on them as members of a community that has a past, a present and a future. JS: How do parents fit into this curriculum? It is designed for children at the time of school entry and you emphasise enormously the importance of parents, but it is implemented through existing centres. JM: Some of our early childhood services are actually operated by parent cooperatives. One in particular � the Playcentre � is an organisation run by parents. They have their own training for parents; and the parents can and often do stay for most of the sessions. They are also eligible for professional development and support. There are parents who assist in management of childcare centres, and Kohanga Reo (language nests) value the involvement of parents. Involvement may be through newsletters, centre-home notebooks, parent notice boards, and also through direct links between parents and teachers or care givers. Certainly open communication is essential. JS: Are centres developing their own materials drawn from the curriculum, but specifically for use by parents, with parents? JM: Yes, slowly. Initially many materials were developed through the professional support opportunities, followed by further development in the early childhood centres. Material development is most common in those centres that have opted for the in-centre form of professional development. JS: When did the implementation of the curriculum start? JM: It was first used in a few centres in 1995, when it was in draft form. The curriculum was actually published in 1996 so it's still very early days; and it is still not considered necessary that anyone should grasp the whole of the curriculum and try to work on it all. We're focusing more on some aspects and on developments in some areas, building on it as we go through it. PNP: In the regions that I know best kindergartens, pre-schools and centres reach a very limited group of children � sometimes only reach the children of the better off. The poor and the marginalised � possibly the children that need the most support � don't have access. What is the situation in New Zealand? JM: A very high proportion of children have access to early childhood services. But then we do have twenty six different services. The major ones are kindergartens, childcare, play centres, Kohanga Reo and home-based services, Montessori provisions, and many other programmes. Early childhood education is very well accepted by parents within New Zealand. However, there are groups like those you mention, with less access. We have a rural education programme for people who are dotted around the rural areas: New Zealand has quite a large rural population. We have many ways of Jill Mitchell reaching out to them. For example, there may be a coordinator who will organise play groups; and there are mobile kindergartens. There is also a distance early childhood service from a correspondence school. In addition, there is a `Parents as First Teachers' programme (PAFT) that arranges a variety of opportunities for parents in the first three years of their children's lives. Recent statistics show that a good range of different socioeconomic groups were using it. They now have a very high proportion of young single parents; and have worked very hard at adapting it for Maori and have a high proportion of Maori. PNP: Is the high coverage to do with resources and the way the services are subsidised? JM: The funding follows the child and does not depend on the type of service being used. As long as the service is chartered and licensed, the funding is the same. There are also subsidies for families in lower socio-economic situations. B e r nard van Leer Foundat ion 25 Early Childhood Matters `Making good use of old magazines' (New Zealand) `Anau Ako Pasifika' project PNP: Are these families mostly Maori or are they mixed? JM: Mixed, but there is a higher proportion of Maori in lower socio-economic groups in relation to their proportion of the population. JS: What about the curriculum's relevance to the Pacific Islander groupings and cultures? JM: Auckland is the largest centre for Pacific Islands cultures in the world. Initially we wanted to have a Pacific Islands curriculum, but each of the Pacific Island cultures is different. However, they are referred to specifically throughout the curriculum; and the idea of the curriculum is that it serves as a model for how to work with people from a range of different cultures. JS: In the implementation of this curriculum, does any conflict arise between what parents see as the `right' way to bring up their children � which perhaps they've learned from other cultures � and the traditional Maori or Pacific Islander ways of bringing up children? JM: I think probably any culture that has had another culture coming in has picked up some things that are not acceptable. Smacking children for example: that is against original Maori beliefs, yet in some families it has become an acceptable way of chastising. There's no way that we could have supported putting something like that into the curriculum. It would go against good practice and knowledge of what is acceptable and good for children. In a way, the curriculum is trying to take those parents back to something that is truer to their culture. JS: Have any conflicts arisen with, for example, Maori people who said `You may not like it, but this is a normal cultural practice for us, it ought to be in the curriculum. We want it in'. JM: Well, the Maori culture doesn't include much that people would see as objectionable in terms of childrearing practices. I'm not saying there are no negative practices: I don't have sufficient knowledge of the culture. What I'm saying is that none came through strongly when the curriculum was being developed. One that might be interpreted as a negative practice generally is that, on the forecourt of the Marae (the traditional meeting area), women are not allowed to B e r nard van Leer Foundat ion 26 Early Childhood Matters " ... the idea of the curriculum is that it serves as a model for how to work with people from a range of different cultures. " PNP: Sometimes groups that have been marginalised and really suppressed for a long time need to have their own separate development. In New Zealand, in terms of division of resources and access to subsidies, if such groups choose for separate development, is that subsidised equally? JM: Definitely. Sometimes it's subsidised more generously, in recognition of the inequities of the past. This separate development issue is a very difficult one. At the moment in our university there are very positive developments, and some are separate while a lot are cooperative. I would once have said that they should all be cooperative, but that fits more into an assimilation model. I believe that we are at a time in our history when some separate developments are necessary. What may then happen is that people are empowered, both in their culture and in their confidence in their culture. My dream is that in the future there will be a merging together, with each being strong in its own beliefs and culture. Supporting implementation Implementing a new curriculum demands wide support if it is to be successful. These are some of the measures so far applied in New Zealand: � the Ministry of Education has provided a set of children's books linked to different strands of the curriculum, and a resource pack that includes information and materials; � a refresher course for teachers has been devised and implemented; � the Early Childhood Professional Support Team at the University of Waikato has developed bilingual research kits and a game to help people understand the philosophical basis of the curriculum, and to help them match the strands of the curriculum with goals. speak during the welcoming ceremony. The Dean of our school is a woman and there are all sorts of functions that happen on the Marae where she cannot speak, although she is a person with the authority. Now, for many people who are not Maori that's quite difficult to accept, particularly in terms of women's rights and the women's movement. But it is part of Maori culture and, when we're on their ground, we do what they do. We respect their culture. There are two Maori points of view on this. Some Maori women say that's okay, we have the power in other ways; others say they ought to be allowed to speak. It also depends on which area you come from, because in one or two areas the women are allowed to speak. What some see as negative, the majority considers acceptable practice. PNP: These sorts of questions arise a lot in Southern Africa as well. Women are either not allowed or not encouraged to speak in public. But that does not necessarily mean that they have no authority. They have power in many other ways. This is a culture of verbalising authority, in a way. If one speaks, one shows authority. These women don't see it that way. Because quite a lot of them really have a lot of control on society, on families, on clans and so on, despite the fact that they don't speak in public. It's not a straightforward issue. But what is the Maori view of the dominant culture, of assimilation, integration, and so on? JM: New Zealand is no longer on an assimilation road. Visitors to New Zealand find it very difficult to accept that Maori have set up their own early childhood services, their own schools and so on: they say it's apartheid. But it's not: Maori have chosen to do so on the basis of their needs. I've changed my views too: if this is the way to maintain Maori language and culture, then it's the way to go forward. There are things that Maori feel very strongly about. For example, they have not had access to some things and so naturally they question the nature of partnership. But we now have our first Maori and non-Maori coalition government; and there's also more emphasis on Maori empowerment. There are lots of things happening now that indicate that there were injustices or inadequacies and that these should be righted. B e r nard van Leer Foundat ion 27 Early Childhood Matters Mexico: Educational experiences with women and girl children in rural, indigenous communities This article is adapted from a presentation made by the author at the `Segundo Congreso de educaci�n infantil familiar' (Second congress of child education in the family), Lugo, Spain in September 1997. It discusses the `Citlalmina' Programme that is supported by the Foundation and operated in the State of Oaxaca in Mexico, by the `Unidad de Capacitaci�n e Investigaci�n Educativa para la Participaci�n' (UCIEP Organisation for Training and Research for Participation). Martha Patricia Pimentel Garcia is Director General of UCIEP. The `Unidad de Capacitaci�n e Investigaci�n Educativa para la Participaci�n' (UCIEP � Organisation for Training and Research for Participation) is a non governmental organisation (NGO). It was founded in 1987 with the general objectives of helping to bring about improvements in the living conditions of people living in poverty � especially rural, indigenous populations � and to promote and defend their economic, social, cultural, political and civil rights. It specifically aims to develop and support processes of selfdetermination in directing educational practice and social analysis; and to enable a problem-solving approach to what is revealed by that social analysis. In 1996, in one of the richest states of UCIEP's Martha Patricia Pimentel Garcia who live below the extreme poverty line live in rural areas; and that the largest number of these people are indigenous. accumulated experiences have Mexico, the number of children who died because of illnesses and conditions that are associated with poverty increased by 30 per cent compared to the previous year. In July 1997, a national survey showed that 16 per cent of rural children were severely malnourished, while about 56 per cent were considered small for their age. All of this reflects the fact that rural families have the equivalent of just four USD led us to identify education, community development and research as key areas. We have also decided to focus on women and children because they have been regarded traditionally as inferior, and have had few opportunities to contribute to the social life of our country. The need for action There are ample facts and figures to demonstrate the vulnerability of indigenous Mexican children. The 1995 census revealed that a total of 10 million people are members of the 56 different indigenous groups of Mexico; that most of the 14 million Mexicans per week to feed each family member. The picture is similarly bleak in education. Statistics show that just over three million Mexican children attend pre-schools � less than 50 per cent of B e r nard van Leer Foundat ion 28 Early Childhood Matters `Mother and child, Oaxaca State' (Mexico) photo: Fernando Viveros (an entry for the Poster Competition) the total; and that it is mostly urban children who attend school and they do so on average for seven years. Rural children, by comparison attend on average for only three; more than two million rural children never attend primary school at all; and there is a 20 per cent drop-out rate among those who do. UCIEP's starting points organisational abilities and focusing on their rights. This enables them to create and sustain productive and social projects to improve the quality of their lives and strengthen their position and involvement in their communities. At the same time, we encourage and support the development of educational and development resources for their children. For six years, UCIEP has been running a Over the past six years, uciep and local women have formed and sustained six `Sociedades de Solidaridad Social' (SSS � Social Solidarity Groups). These have very clear objectives, including: to create sources of employment; to promote the social well-being of the members and their families; and to ensure that they have the basic necessities of life. Each SSS maintains a range of initiatives that may include: a community shop; a community pharmacy; a craft workshop; a cookhouse; a housing project; a childcare centre; and work for the rights of women and children. programme in six communities in the state of Mexico. This promotes the economic, legal and social organisation of women, by creating groups and training them using non-formal educational theories and methods. The work is based on gender: we start from the ways in which the anatomical differences that characterise each gender have been used socially � for example, to justify inequalities in how each is treated or valued. As far as women are concerned, this especially means the limits that are placed on their development and on their autonomy. The process involves raising the awareness of women, enhancing their Adapting to a new context In 1994, UCIEP carried out research into the human rights of indigenous children in the state of Oaxaca and the results caused the communities to demand action. In response, UCIEP illiteracy; domestic violence; discrimination; difficulty in accessing or completing basic education; absence of work; absence of tools and materials for production; and the inadequacies of health, water, electricity, communications, drainage and other services. The first programme is called `Citlalmina'. It is built around the idea of community organisation and development, through organised participation of women and girls. Within this programme, are the three sub-programmes: 1 Women and sustainable development; 2 3 Education and early childhood development; and Development and the participation of children (0-18). Each of these � in coordination with the others � develops a body of work that aims at self-development in people, and sustainable development in their communities. The second programme is made up of socio-educational research to give UCIEP's in which women assemble their identity, and on the mechanisms that bring about their subordination. Another is based on our own interpretation of the concept of popular education. While Latin America has had vast experience in popular education, its conceptualisation has not always been clear. For example, sometimes it means the formal education of adults to bring about consciousness-raising, understanding of illiteracy, basic education, training for work, and community development. However, in UCIEP, offered to make use of its experiences in the state of Mexico, adapting them to the cultural contexts of Oaxaca. By way of entry, we offered a participatory programme that included early education, pre-school facilities and the promotion of the rights of the child. Programmes and sub-programmes Eight mixed communities were chosen. In contrast to the state of Mexico, most people in these communities use their indigenous language, and almost all of the women are monolingual. In addition, there has been a great deal of migration, either to the USA The chosen communities are characterised by very high marginalisation; while migration has had specific effects on cultural composition. These include: communities in which the majority is female � girls, mothers and grandmothers; families headed by mothers, grandparents or aunts and uncles; and families in which males over 13 live far apart from the females. Family survival demands that each member of the family must work, inside or outside the community; and there is a high school drop out rate among girls, because they must take on domestic work or work in the fields. We believe that only a wide-scale, integrated approach would have any effect in these circumstances, and have therefore launched two programmes and three sub-programmes. or to the we have a holistic big farms in the north of the country. This means that one or both parents are absent for long periods. There is also a strong military presence in the area, mostly because of armed conflict, and the appearance of the Ej�rcito Popular Revolucionario (EPR � Revolutionary Popular Army). Factors like these all have an impact on the cultural dynamic. However, despite differences we believe that the problems of the mothers and children of both zones are very similar. They include: malnutrition; vision that acknowledges the multiple processes involved, the ordering of these, and their organisational, economic and political nature. And we also link adult education with infant education and development, taking into account how adults and children build up their knowledge. We approach learning from the constructivist perspective, trying to develop a practical education that starts from the socio-cultural context of the communities. The objective is to ensure comprehension of more universal realities so that people can develop actions a sound theoretical and methodological base. Key concepts The `Citlalmina' programme is about progressive structural change brought about by specific approaches to nonformal education. One such approach is built around an emphasis on the ways B e r nard van Leer Foundat ion 30 Early Childhood Matters `Ready for anything' (Mexico) photo: Marc Mataheru themselves to the maximum possible: people need to understand what education and infant development necessarily imply; and to comprehend both the environment in which they live, and the interactive network of which they form part. months and six years, offering early education, pre-school education, and health and nutrition services. These centres contain areas for the smallest babies, for those who are still breastfeeding, for preschoolers, for adult learning, for eating, and for medical consultations using traditional treatment and medicines. Education of the children is by the mothers model is very similar to that of the state of Mexico, but there are differences. One is that much of the work is carried out in homes rather than in centres; a second is linked to the fact that most of the communities in Oaxaca have less than a thousand inhabitants, have a higher percentage of indigenous people who are also illiterate and monolingual, and have their own cultural rules. To accommodate these, a different methodology has been developed. This has 12 steps to give a cultural diagnosis of the community that allows us a profound understanding of cultural practices in: childhood; the exploitation, use and conservation of natural resources; norms and customs in social, political, justice and economic organisation; the revaluation of language and traditions that allow the preservation of cultural identity; and the identification of the basic needs of the families and community. The construction of a model curriculum for early and preschool education is based on these data. The practice We have developed a method of promotion, organisation and action-research that starts from the participation of adults. In practical terms, this means promoting the participation of all those who directly influence the development of young children � parents, grandparents, aunts and uncles, cousins, siblings, teachers. This work is done in small groups, and the tasks of the participants include considering whether the social conditions of the community offer the optimal conditions for the development of their children. If they do not, then it is the members of the community who must decide what more is required, and find ways to provide this. So far, results have included providing daycare centres for children between three of the women's organisations. These people are fully trained and are monitored permanently. Parallel with the work in the centres, a sub programme about children's rights has been developed. This involves children and young people from 2 to 18. Model curricula UCIEP developed a model curriculum in the state of Mexico that linked the education of adults with that of children, and has a cognitive orientation. Learning makes sense to the participants because it is constructive and purposive. It also includes learning how to operate productive workshops for the parents whose children attend the centres. In the state of Oaxaca, we are now echoing this by constructing a model curriculum that we call `Comunidad, ni�ez y familia ind�gena' (COMUNIFAM � Community, Childhood and the Indigenous Family). This Objectives and operations In essence, the `Citlalmina' project works towards: 1 Women's self-development, and development of the families; B e r nard van Leer Foundat ion 31 Early Childhood Matters `Girl from Chayuco' (Mexico) photo: Fernando Viveros (an entry for the Poster Competition) the development of their children as much as is possible. The operation of the programme is based on the following: � Selection by the community of three community educators; � Establishment by the community of a training and learning centre in which activities for children, young people and women can develop; � Formation of SSS, necessary for people to interact with their environments. The essential tools are matched to the specific demands of individuals, helping them to become more competent in their daily lives, and in their work as educational agents. By matching essential tools to the needs of individuals, a series of personal competencies can be defined that, according to Sylvia Schmelkes: `imply and embrace in each case, at least four components. These components centre on: information and knowledge (appropriation, processing and use of information); ability; attitude; and value.'* 2 3 4 5 6 Basic necessities of the communities; Family life and work; Local culture (economic system, parties, traditions, and so on); National culture; Holistic development of children (health, nutrition, level of learning, their rights, problems that affect them, and so on). Most of the people who participate are illiterate so the project encourages the development of literacy and numeracy; while the general approach is to generate themes from these key areas and explore them using problemsolving techniques. in line with the cultures found in the community; � Home visiting; � Formation of community education committees that draw on selfdetermination activities. From needs to educational content As with the model from the state of Mexico, the training of educational agents � who we now call community 2 3 Sustainable community development; Conditions within families and communities that facilitate the holistic development of girl children; 4 5 Stimulation of role modelling by parents for infants; Development of parenting abilities in parents so that they can support Our focus is on basic learning needs and the skills necessary to fulfil them. We call these the essential tools; and they include calculation, reading and writing, problem-solving, selfexpression, and so on. To them we add the theoretical/practical content � for example, the values and attitudes 1 Organisation and functioning of education services (daycare centres, SSS, The basic learning needs are translated into educational content via a process of selection from local and universal cultures (including child raising practices), and from basic education and pre-school curricula. This has produced a group of six key areas to prepare families, communities and educators for their roles: Overall, the educational experiences that the women and children participate in are articulated by the problems that they share, and by their need to overcome the obstacles that prevent them from having a better quality of life. * Schmelkes S (1991) Necesidades B�sicas de Aprendzaje de los Adultos en Am�rica Latina; Regional Office of UNESCO educators � is the core of the project. Latin America and the Caribbean, Mexico, p 33. learning/teaching centres); B e r nard van Leer Foundat ion 32 Early Childhood Matters The author is a social and child psychologist who has served as Venezuela's General Director for the Coordination of Social Programmes for Childhood at the Ministry of the Family. He is currently the country's National Director of Pre-school Education � which puts him in a strong position to ensure that early years provision is both extended and strengthened in Venezuela. His career includes 14 years of teaching child and language development to pre-school and primary teacher students at the Universidad Cat�lica Andr�s Bello and the Universidad Metropolitana in Caracas. He has an extensive background in research in many areas associated with early childhood and has published widely, especially about children who are excluded from formal schools, and about Venezuela's community-based daycare centres. Venezuela `En un lugar de la Mancha, de cuyo nombre no quisiera acordarme...' (in a place in La Mancha, the name of which I do not wish to remember...)1 Government officials and employees often compare themselves to Cervantes' Don Quixote, the opening line from which I quote above. They believe that they have stubbornly fought to make a better world for others, but that the beneficiaries of their efforts do not appreciate the gift they have been given. In the end, they may come to feel that they have been fighting imaginary monsters. Experienced teachers � including preschool teachers in centres � are an example: they are prone to argue that, despite their huge efforts to make children and parents understand the importance of education, their targets resist such `good' ideas and behave just as they have always done. In my view, such teachers waste their lives fighting monsters created by their own minds and, like Don Quixote, can end up being whisked aloft on one of the sails of a windmill while still battling. And all because they have mistakenly identified something benign and useful � the windmill � as a monster that must be fought. I am not saying that the injustices identified by the teachers are not real, nor that they should be ignored in the battle to improve the quality of education. But the targeted beneficiaries of their efforts must also have the chance to come to the table, to contribute their ideas, to have them discussed, and to help find solutions. Instead, what often happens is that educational planners put together weak or inadequate projects with the sole aim of increasing the coverage of early childhood education. Meanwhile their supposed beneficiaries are creating real solutions to the problems that they have in meeting the development and care needs of young children. And they do so by making the best use of the resources that exist around them, and of the solidarity that community networks generate and sustain. Access to pre-school education is a problem in Venezuela. More than 80 per Jes�s Leonardo Y�nez developing inter-sectorial networks cent of the population lives in poverty; and more than half is extremely poor. The population is also young and the poor have the youngest average age. Not only that but many of the parents of the youngest children are too poor and inexperienced to take advantage of the scarce resources that do exist in their communities. To complicate the picture, many politicians do not understand why it makes sense to invest in the education of children under six years. They do not seem to grasp the advantages that accrue through early childhood education and so every year the budget is reduced. I hope the above helps to explain why so many teachers end up disappointed and deceived, and retire dispirited and tired of teaching or any related activity. More rewarding battles Fortunately, this is not always the case. About 10 years ago, a retired teacher2 initiated an alternative project for children under seven and their families. Her aim B e r nard van Leer Foundat ion 33 Early Childhood Matters was to make the best possible use of her experience as a teacher by working in the `Centros del Ni�o y la Familia' (CNF � Child and family centres) programme, to improve its impact on living conditions. She brought together educators and others with an interest in children and their families, creating a complex network of people and institutions that took a broad developmental view of what could be done. The point was to identify, mobilise and coordinate all resources that could usefully contribute to improvement. With the help of international organisations (including the Bernard van Leer Foundation), local governors and commercial enterprises, the project developed a number of social programmes. These included credit schemes for small businesses, funding for remodelling the infrastructure of schools and houses, and � most important of all � continuous in-service training for teachers and community promoters. The project was called PACOMIN, and it has now expanded to cover 11 communities in the state of Falc�n. It has also developed its network so well that it is able to bring about real (Venezuela) `PACOMIN' project (an entry for the Poster Competition) B e r nard van Leer Foundat ion 34 Early Childhood Matters " changes in communities, and therefore to have a deep influence on the lives of children and families. Some years later, another teacher started a programme in the state of Anzoategui with the participation of local oil enterprises and the support of the Foundation. This project, known as FUNDAISLETAS, has grown to cover five municipalities and includes programmes that mobilise teenagers and grandparents to support children as they grow, and to enhance their development environment. Today, there are many success stories like this around the country, and each is having a positive impact on patterns of childrearing and development, and on life opportunities for parents and communities. The heart of the battle They have uncovered and unleashed the potential of communities ... " programmes that promote the development of the family and community. These programmes include health programmes, the development of small businesses, family food programmes and environmental improvement programmes. 2 They have increased coverage by allowing children who cannot get to formal pre-schools to benefit from the operation of non-formal preschools. 3 They have uncovered and unleashed the potential of communities to function well in the interests of their children's development. This has also given families control over institutional resources, and the means to establish alliances with business partners and neighbours. 4 They have strengthened the idea of the family as the central institution in the development of young children. They have also had other important influences. For example: Quixotes, but professionals who listen to the people they serve. This project can be seen as the beginning of an admission that Venezuela was operating a two-tier system: one tier for those who participated in formal provisions and who were certified as having attended pre-schooling; and one for those in non-conventional programmes and who were not certified because their programmes were not officially recognised. The inevitable outcome is that, despite the enormous efforts that have been made to increase the number of children who are adequately served at pre-school level, the number of children who are officially recognised stays the same: the figures don't reflect the reality. Other consequences are also apparent. For example: 1 Children in non-conventional preschool provisions have been considered to be in transition into `real' pre-schools � the formal ones; 2 Non-conventional curricula have not been considered the equal of formal ones � and they have also been seen as specifically for poorer children; 3 Teachers and other staff in nonformal programmes segregate themselves from those in formal programmes because the two sides have fewer and fewer elements in common � and this remained true even when non-formal programmes used conventional infrastructures and formal techniques; 4 Universities trained teachers for conventional pre-schools, and there were no training policies for working in pre-school programmes that focus on the family and the community. That made it hard to find appropriate staff for the nonformal pre-schools. Victories Since 1992, a project supported by the Ministry of Education and the Foundation, `Infancia, familia y pobreza' (Childhood, Family and Poverty), has been at the centre of this expanding web, under the optimistic leadership of many teachers and former teachers. These are certainly not Don Despite such structural impediments, these projects have achieved a great deal. They have, for example, been able to generate their own resources independently of central government, by encouraging local government and private businesses to invest in community development. In general, they have had the following effects. 1 They have provided articulation between the various social support B e r nard van Leer Foundat ion 35 Early Childhood Matters " 1 exchanges of experiences between the `Infancia, familia y pobreza' project and other entities in the country have allowed the development of other models of networks for the care of children. 2 Researchers and research centres are developing an interest in problemsolving, and investigation and discovery approaches in early education. This is because the Ministry of Education has adopted such models as public policy, and is also strengthening them in training programmes. 3 Training curricula for teachers have been revised to incorporate some elements of the non-conventional programmes. 4 Strong pressure has been applied to the planning levels of the Ministry of Education to contextualise preschool curricula, bring traditional and non-conventional strategies together, and reform aspects of the Education Law. 5 Local initiatives have been validated and have been added to the range of The key to that success lies in operating through and with local support networks " options available to ensure preschool education. The biggest success of projects such as PACOMIN and FUNDAISLETAS, however, is in integrating education with early childhood, the family and the community. The key to that success lies in operating through and with local support networks, and in making a comprehensive, integrated and effective use of the resources that are found in the formal education system, the family and the community. This is why I claim that these projects have indeed found viable alternatives to formal approaches, thus helping the country to comply with its commitment to holistic education for children aged 0 to 6 years. Remaining conflicts In terms of quality in the curriculum, several apparent problem areas can be readily dismissed. For example, it is claimed that accepting a nonconventional model denies young children good quality education. Yet we can now see that this does not have to be true: the experiences of PACOMIN and FUNDAISLETAS � among others � show that quality actually improves when parents and community members participate in the education of their children. It is also claimed that trained teachers are substituted by untrained childcarers and that the careers of teachers are therefore threatened. However, there is no such substitution. What happens is that teachers take on additional roles � for example, they become professional trainers as the childcarers learn about early childhood care and development. In terms of changes in working conditions and contracts, many teachers are frightened to leave the security of their schools. However, those that do venture out find ample compensation, not least because the alliance between themselves, the parents and community members guarantees that the children are looked after wherever they happen to be. In addition, the presence of the teachers in the communities helps them to avoid being regarded as strangers or outsiders. This adds to their sense of personal security. Some teachers also worry that having to work with others, outside of their centres, will cause them extra work. The reality is that the participation of parents and community members simply changes the nature of some of their work. However, many teachers have not been prepared for this. Once they make the necessary adjustments, they discover that the work is shared, and that the people with whom they share it quickly prove to be indispensable. Teachers also fear having their territory invaded by parents, community representatives, promoters, professionals from NGOs, and other people. But this is a matter of adapting, and of forming and managing alliances in ways that are appropriate to the local circumstances. A good example is that of the `La Barraca' pre-school in the community of Coco. It includes all parents in its work, all the way from That doesn't mean to say that problems don't remain. The reconceptualisation discussed above causes tensions between specialists � including teachers in pre-school centres � and other actors. There are three areas in which differences of opinion commonly arise: quality in the curricula; changes in working conditions in the formal sector; and the relationship between the community and the formal sector. B e r nard van Leer Foundat ion 36 Early Childhood Matters (Venezuela) `PACOMIN' project initial planning right through to maintaining and repairing the buildings. Another example can be found in the `Familia de Baruta' programme, which relies on community promoters to keep the pre-school work going while the teachers are on holidays. In terms of the relationship between the formal sector and communities there are three misconceptions. The first is that school and community should be totally independent of each other � despite the fact that the children who attend the school also form part of the community. However, numerous investigations have shown that mutual understanding between families and schools produce better results in terms of the socioemotional development, the inculcation of values and the development of cultural identity. The second misconception is that the family is the party that learns and the school is the party that teaches. This has been passed down to us from the days of didactic teaching. But today it is recognised that it is preferable to be knowledgeable rather than overeducated; and that knowledge gained in school is neither more nor less valid than knowledge gained in the family and the community. My view is that, if we want a favourable change in education, we have to promote learning encounters between schools and families. The idea that you can only learn in school is obsolete, as is the idea that there is no necessary link between what you learn and how you live. The third misconception that is often raised about the relationship between schools and communities is a double one: that non-conventional programmes are for the poor, and are necessarily linked to community development; and that formal educational initiatives are therefore not one of the driving forces behind community development. For me, choosing to use non-conventional programmes in the most vulnerable areas, and working to integrate them with all other supportive elements, is a strategic decision in favour of the development of a country. To see such programmes as only for the poor is to fail to understand this strategy: any educational proposal that aims to improve the quality of life � and that is what nonconventional programmes do � is a proposal for quality education. Conclusion In conclusion, I would like to put forward my understanding of the word `quality'. For me, it is not some fixed and unchangeable concept but rather an ideal constructed from the collective aspirations of the beneficiaries, the goals of their leaders and directors, and the theoretical and philosophical evaluations of the curricula that academics and researchers must do. notes 1 Don Quixote is the hero of a Spanish novel by Cervantes. One of his adventures includes battling in a confused state against what he believes to be a fearsome monster. It is actually a windmill with its huge sails in motion. 2 Many teachers retire in their forties in Venezuela. B e r nard van Leer Foundat ion 37 Early Childhood Matters Kushanda Pre-school Programme: winner of the 1997 Oscar van Leer Award New publication from the Foundation: Samenspel - Mothers Speaking Most publications describe the work of an early childhood project or organisation from the point of view of the project/organisation itself. But what do mothers think of the work of a project? Do they feel that their needs and those of their children are being met? Do they find the work useful, or even necessary? And what if their cultural and religious backgrounds are completely different from those of the project and the environment in which they live? The Foundation recently published the latest paper in its series `Working Papers in Early Childhood Development'. Entitled Samenspel � Mothers Speaking, it records the views of the mothers with whom the Samenspel project works, and the approach of the project itself. Based in Rotterdam, The Netherlands, Samenspel works with migrant families, many of whom originate from Turkey, Morocco or the Caribbean. Samenspel's approach � which places children and their parents, and those who work directly with them, at the centre of its work � is effective, flexible and rooted in reality. As a result, it has been adopted by many organisations all over the Netherlands. The paper shows that mothers learn a great deal from playgroups, and try to apply this knowledge in their daily lives and in the rearing of their children. It is useful to people and organisations working with children, and local and national governments; and can provide a foundation for those wanting to establish and support playgroups for specific groups. Samenspel � Mothers Speaking by Nanette Kieneker and Judith Maas on behalf of Samenspel op Maat. Working Paper in Early Childhood Development number 21, September 1997, ISBN 90-6195-047-3. Single copies are available free of charge from the Foundation at the address inside the front cover. Joanna Bouma, Series Editor `Working Papers in Early Childhood Development'. The winner of the 1997 Oscar van Leer Award is the `Kushanda Pre-school Programme' Zimbabwe. The award is presented annually in memory of Oscar van Leer, the son of the founder of the Foundation, who died in 1996. It is given to a Foundation-supported project that has made an important contribution towards enabling parents and communities to help young children realise their innate potential. In the case of the Kushanda Pre-school Programme, the Award particularly recognises the project's emphasis on community ownership, empowering disadvantaged or less privileged people, and keeping costs low by helping to identify and utilise the human and material resources that are available to communities. An outline of some of the work of the Kushanda Pre-school Programme can be found in Newsletter 86, July 1997; and in We are your children, ECD Practice and Reflection series, no. 7. Copies are available from the Department of Programme Documentation and Communication. photo: Ivar Samr�n (right) Chairman of the Board of Trustees of the Foundation, presents the 1997 Oscar van Leer Award to John Conradie (left), Martin D Chapwanya and Emily Muzawasi of the Kushanda Preschool Programme B e r nard van Leer Foundat ion 38 Early Childhood Matters About the Bernard van Leer Foundation The Bernard van Leer Foundation is a private foundation based in the Netherlands. It operates internationally, concentrating its resources on early childhood development. The Foundation's income is derived from the bequest of Bernard van Leer (1883-1958), a Dutch industrialist and philanthropist who, in 1919, founded an industrial and consumer packaging company that was to become Royal Packaging Industries Van Leer NV. This is currently a limited company operating in over 40 countries world-wide. During his lifetime Bernard van Leer supported a broad range of humanitarian causes. In 1949, he created the Bernard van Leer Foundation, to channel the revenues from his fortune to charitable purposes after his death. When he died in 1958, the Foundation became the beneficiary of the entire share capital of the then privately owned Van Leer enterprise and other assets. Under the leadership of his son Oscar van Leer, who died in 1996, the Foundation focused on enhancing opportunities for children growing up in circumstances of social and economic disadvantage to optimally develop their innate potential. In seeking to achieve this objective, the Foundation has chosen to concentrate on children from zero to seven years of age. This is because scientific findings have demonstrated that interventions in the early years of childhood are most effective in yielding lasting benefits to children and society. The Foundation accomplishes its objective through two interconnected strategies: 1 An international grant-making programme in selected countries aimed at developing contextually appropriate approaches to early childhood care and development; and The sharing of knowledge and know-how in the domain of early childhood development that primarily draws on the experiences generated by the projects that the Foundation supports, with the aim of informing and influencing policy and practice. 2 A leaflet giving fuller details of the Foundation and its grant-making policy is available, as is a Publications and Videos List. Please contact the Department of Documentation and Communication, at the address given inside the front cover. Trustees: I Samr�n (Sweden) Chairman; Mrs MC Benton (USA); R Freudenberg (Germany); J Kremers (the Netherlands); HB van Liemt (the Netherlands); A Mar-Haim (Israel); PJJ Rich (Switzerland). Executive Director: MCE van Gendt. `Father helps his son put on his jacket' (the Netherlands) photo courtesy of the `Samenspel' Project (an entry for the Poster Competition)