Overview Unit 7
The Modern Presidency: Tools of Power
After completing this session, you will be able to:
- Summarize the growth in presidential power since the ratification
of the Constitution.
- Explain the major elements that effect presidential influence
- Explain and discuss the consequences of the modern president's
tendency to cultivate public support for policy actions.
- Analyze the role of the cabinet and cabinet secretaries in the
- Discuss the difference between the public's expectation of presidential
power and the constitutional allocation of power to the president.
The growing expectations that the public has of presidents creates
a gap between expectations and formal powers. This unit discusses
the ways in which presidents seek to bridge this gap, by using personal
attributes and cultivating strong public support. The unit also
illustrates how presidents have increasingly centralized, at the
expense of many of the cabinet officials, policy-making authority
as a means of maximizing their own power to control the political
The American Presidency has changed dramatically over American history.
Article II of the Constitution lists potent but limited
formal powers for the president. Article II states that "executive
power shall be vested in a President of the United States of America."
Among the president's other formal powers (also called enumerated
powers) is the power to appoint (subject to Senate confirmation)
executive department heads, federal judges, and U.S. ambassadors.
The president can negotiate treaties, also subject to Senate approval,
and can recognize ambassadors from other countries. Presidents can
veto bills passed by Congress, but such vetoes can be overridden
by a two-thirds vote in both houses of Congress. As commander-in-chief,
the president is the top civilian commander of all U.S. forces,
although the Congress retains formal authority to declare war.
Beginning with our first president, George Washington, many presidents
have used their implied and informal presidential powers to enhanced
their personal influence, and often the power and potential influence
of later presidents. Many of these implied powers, which
are assumed as granted under the Constitution although not explicitly
listed, stem from a president's responsibilities during times of
national emergency. For example, our early presidents, including
Washington and Jefferson, didn't hesitate to exercise their commander-in-chief
authority by ordering Navy ships into hostile waters without an
express declaration of war from Congress. And in his bold Louisiana
Purchase, Jefferson showed that a president who acts decisively
might successfully compel others to follow his lead after the fact.
A president's informal powers, or the powers to persuade
others to follow his lead, derive in part from his use of the visibility
and prestige of the office itself. As America's only nationally
elected leader, the president is considered our county's "first
citizen" who stands and acts for the American people as a whole.
Some presidents, such as Lincoln, Wilson, Theodore Roosevelt, and
Franklin Roosevelt, drew upon their informal powers during times
of national crisis to increase their influence over others in Congress
and the executive branch. Other presidents, including Lyndon Johnson,
drew upon their personal skills and intimate knowledge of legislative
processes to pass bold national initiatives such as the Civil and
Voting Rights Acts.
During the twentieth century, the presidency itself was transformed.
As they presided over two world wars, a major depression, and a
cold war, several twentieth century presidents increased their powers
and influence at the cost of Congress and other government institutions.
Presidents now compete with Congress in setting and enacting the
country's legislative agenda, and the White House is the focal point
for setting foreign and domestic policy. Presidents Nixon, Reagan,
and Clinton, for example, conducted specific foreign policy initiatives
almost wholly from within the White House, sometimes at the cost
of a consistent and unified U.S. foreign policy.
The institutional presidency has also grown during the twentieth
century. It includes the White House Office (WHO) and the Executive
Office of the President (EOP). These offices surround modern presidents
in layers of bureaucracy that they can use to enhance their power
and influence. However, some presidents have found that the White
House bureaucracy can actually make them feel isolated and out-of-touch.
A key position is White House chief of staff. The chief of
staff serves as the president's "gatekeeper," and is often
credited or blamed for helping or detracting from the support and
effectiveness of recent presidents. Some vice presidents have exercised
important influence in their presidential administration.
The development of electronic mass media facilitated the transformation
to the modern presidency. Through the adept use of television, modern
presidential candidates can get elected as national personalities
who enjoy broad personal popularity. While in office, a president
can choose to "go public" through direct television appeals
to the American people that are designed to circumvent party leaders,
Congress, and other government officials. President Reagan, for
example, used his first televised speech after an assassination
attempt to successfully sell his signature tax cut directly to the
Although the presidency offers a range of formal, implied, and potential
informal powers, modern presidents grapple with the inherent limitations
of the office and often have difficulty coping with conflicting
public expectations. For example, most Americans want their
president to be a "regular person" who understands them
and their daily struggles. Yet, many Americans also expect their
presidents to rise above commonality and command the international
stage. Similarly, Americans usually prefer pragmatic approaches
to governing and executive leadership, but also expect presidents
to lead with visionary policy initiatives. Modern presidents must
meet these and other conflicting assumptions in a political environment
where institutional challenges, including the opposing party in
Congress and organized special interests, daily attempt to thwart
or fundamentally reshape the president's policy initiatives.