- General background
- Fundamental processes involved in the interaction of radiation with matter
- Secondary effects of radiation
- Tertiary effects of radiation on materials
- Biologic effects of ionizing radiation
- Biologic effects of non-ionizing radiation
- Applications of radiation
The stopping power of a medium toward a charged particle refers to the energy loss of the particle per unit path length in the medium. It is specified by the differential -dE/dx, in which -dE represents the energy loss and dx represents the increment of path length. What is of interest to the radiation scientist is the spatial distribution of energy deposition in the particle track. In approximate terms, it is customary to refer to linear energy transfer (LET), the energy actually deposited per unit distance along the track (i.e., -dE/dx). For not-so-fast particles, stopping power and LET are numerically equal; this situation covers all heavy particles studied so far in chemistry and biology but not electrons. In a refined study and redefinition of LET or restricted linear collision stopping power, a quantity symbolized by the letter L with subscript Greek letter delta, LΔ, is defined as equal to the fractional energy lost (-dE) per unit distance traversed along the track (dl), or LΔ = -(dE/dl)Δ, in which the subscript delta (Δ) indicates that only collisions with energy transfer less than an amount Δ are included. The quantity LΔ may be expressed in any convenient unit of energy per unit length. For Δ equal to 100 eV, even the most energetic secondary electrons (i.e., electrons ejected by the penetrating particle) produce on average only about three subsequent ionizations. The latter, however, are closely spaced because of the low energy of the electron, and hence the corresponding energy density is high. It is higher yet for lower-energy secondary electrons. In contrast, for Δ much in excess of 100 eV, more subsequent ionizations are produced, but their spacing is increased significantly and the corresponding density of energy deposition is low. Since only the region of high energy density is of concern for many applications, the quantity L100 is often used to characterize LET.
The bulk of energy deposition resulting from the passage of a fast-moving, charged particle is concentrated in the “infratrack,” a very narrow region extending typically on the order of 10 interatomic distances perpendicular to the particle trajectory. The extent of the infratrack is dependent on the velocity of the particle, and it is defined as the distance over which the electric field of the particle is sufficiently strong and varies rapidly enough to produce electronic excitation. Inside the infratrack, electrons of the medium are attracted toward the trajectory of a positively charged particle. Many cross the trajectory, depositing energy on both sides. Consequently, the infratrack is characterized by an exceedingly high density of energy deposition and plays a vital role in determining the effects of ionizing radiation on the medium. (The magnitude of energy deposition in the infratrack is further increased by the preponderance of collective [plasma] excitations in that region.) The concept of the infratrack was developed by the American physicists Werner Brandt and Rufus H. Ritchie and independently by Myron Luntz. The region outside the infratrack is beyond the direct influence of the penetrating particle. Energy deposition in this outer region, or “ultratrack,” is due primarily to electronic excitation and ionization by secondary electrons having sufficient energy to escape from the infratrack. In contrast to the infratrack, the ultratrack does not have well-defined physical bounds. Its spatial extent may reasonably be equated with the maximum range of secondary electrons transverse to the particle trajectory.
For practical purposes, LET is associated with the main track, which may be thought of as including the infratrack and a portion of the ultratrack out to which energy density is still relatively high—i.e., the region over which excitation is caused by secondary electrons of initial energy less than some value Δ, say 100 eV. Energy deposited in “blobs” or “short tracks” to the side of the main track, as described in the Mozumder–Magee theory of track effects (named for Asokendu Mozumder, an Indian-born physicist, and John L. Magee, an American chemist) is purposefully excluded. LET, so defined, characterizes energy deposition within a limited volume—i.e., energy locally deposited about the particle trajectory.