thousand years ago when mighty rivers started flowing down the Himalayan slopes, western
Rajasthan was green and fertile. Great civilizations prospered in the cool amiable climate
on riverbanks of northwestern India. The abundant waters of the rivers and copious rains
provided ample sustenance for their farming and other activities. Some six thousand years
later, Saraswati, one of the rivers of great splendour in this region, for reasons long
enigmatic, dwindled and dried up. Several other rivers shifted their courses, some of
their tributaries were pirated by neigbouring rivers or severed from their
main courses. The greenery of Rajasthan was lost, replaced by an arid desert where hot
winds piled up dunes of sand. The flourishing civilizations vanished one by one. By
geological standards, these are small-scale events; for earth, in its long 4.5 billion
years history, had witnessed many such changes, some of them even accompanied by wiping
out of several living species. But those that occurred in northwest India took place
within the span of early human history affecting the livelihood of flourishing
civilizations and driving them out to other regions.
The nemesis that overtook northwestern Indias plenty and prosperity
along with the disappearance of the river Saraswati, has been a subject engaging several
minds over the last hundred and fifty years. However, convincing explanations about what
caused all the changes were available only in the later half of the current century
through data gathered by archaeologists, geologists, geophysicists, and climatologists
using a variety of techniques. They have discussed and debated their views in symposia
held from time to time, many of which have also appeared in several publications. Over the
last thirty years, considerable volume of literature have grown on the subject and in this
article some of the salient opinions expressed by various workers are presented.
Rivers constitute the lifeline for any country and some of the worlds
great civilizations (Indus Valley, Mesopotamian, and Egyptian) have all prospered on banks
of river systems. Hindus consider rivers as sacred and have personified them as deities
and sung their praises in their religious literature, the Vedas (Rig,
Yajur and Atharva), Manusmriti, Puranas and Mahabharata. These cite names of several rivers
that existed during the Vedic period and which had their origin in the Himalayas. One such
river Saraswati, has been glorified in these texts and referred by various names like
Markanda, Hakra, Suprabha, Kanchanakshi, Visala, Manorama etc.1,2, and Mahabharata has exalted Saraswati River as covering
the universe and having seven separate names2. Rig veda describes it as one of seven major rivers
of Vedic times, the others being, Shatadru (Sutlej), Vipasa (Beas), Askini (Chenab),
Parsoni or Airavati (Ravi), Vitasta (Jhelum) and Sindhu (Indus)1,3,4 (Figure 1). For full 2000 y (between
6000 and 4000 BC), Saraswati had flowed as a great river before it was obliterated in
a short span of geological time through a combination of destructive natural events.
Judged in the broader perspective of geological evolution, disappearance or
disintegration of rivers, shifting of their courses, capture of one river by another
(river piracy), steady decline of waters culminating in drying up of their beds, are all
normal responses to tectonism (uplift, faulting, subsidence, tilting), earthquakes,
adverse climate and other natural events. Such catastrophic events overtook Saraswati
river in quick succession, within a short geological span in the Quaternary period of the
Cenozoic era (Figure 1) leading to its decline and disappearance. Similar changes to
drainage of rivers have occurred during earlier geological periods also, much before human
evolution. A few of the south Indian rivers like the east-flowing Pennar, Palar and
Cauvery draining into the Bay of Bengal and west-flowing Swarna, Netravathi and Gurupur
draining into the Arabian Sea are known to have changed their courses or got dismembered
due to uplift of land. Today, their former courses or palaeochannels can be seen as dry
evolution and drainage
The river Saraswati, during its heydays, is described to be much bigger than
Sindhu or the Indus River. During the Vedic period, this river had coursed through the
region between modern Yamuna and Sutlej. Though Saraswati is lost, many of its
contemporary rivers like Markanda, Chautang and Ghaggar have outlived it and survived till
today. All the big rivers of this period
Saraswati, Shatadru (Sutlej), Yamuna derived their waters from glaciers which had
extensively covered the Himalayas during the Pleistocene times. The thawing of these
glaciers during Holocene, the warm period that followed, generated many rivers, big and
small, coursing down the Himalayan slopes. The melting of glaciers has also been referred
in Rigvedic literature, in mythological terms, as an outcome of war between God Indra and
the demon Vritra1,9. The
enormity of waters available for agriculture and other occupations during those times had
prompted the religiously bent ancient inhabitants to describe reverentially seven mighty
rivers or Sapta Sindhu, as divine
rivers arising from slowly moving serpent (Ahi),
an apparent reference to the movement of glaciers3.
According to geological and glaciological studies11,13, Saraswati
was supposed to have originated in Bandapunch masiff (Sarawati-Rupin glacier confluence at
Naitwar in western Garhwal). Descending through Adibadri, Bhavanipur and Balchapur in the
foothills to the plains, the river took roughly a southwesterly course, passing through
the plains of Punjab, Haryana,
Rajasthan, Gujarat and finally it is believed to have debouched into the ancient Arabian
Sea at the Great Rann of Kutch. In this long journey, Saraswati was believed to have had
three tributaries, Shatadru (Sutlej) arising from Mount Kailas, Drishadvati from Siwalik
Hills and the old Yamuna. Together, they flowed along a channel, presently identified as
that of the Ghaggar river, also called Hakra River in Rajasthan and Nara in Sindh1,11
(Figure 2). The rivers, Saraswati and Ghaggar, are therefore supposed to be one and the
same, though a few workers use the name Ghaggar to describe Saraswatis upper course
and Hakra to its lower course, while some others refer Saraswati of weak and declining
stage, by the name Ghaggar12.
Considerable philological debate has taken place about the roots of the
nomenclature Saraswati, which is referred to by the name Harkhaiti or
Haravaiti (in Avesta) in regions further west of
India. The contentious point debated is whether the syllable Ha in the rivers name changed to Sa, later in India or Sa to Ha outside
India. The choice of the name, Saraswati or Harkhaiti, depended upon whether one
considered Aryans, the ancient inhabitants along this riverine system, as indigenous
people who, upon their migration, carried the name Saraswati westwards where linguistic
growth changed Sa soon to Ha; or, whether they were migrants from west of
India who brought with them the name Harakhaiti which changed to Saraswati once they
settled here2. Apart from the nomenclature, the riverine systems of the period
draining northwestern India had generated considerable discussion among the scholars about
the positions (hierarchy) of the other feeder rivers, big and small, their sources and
causes for their shifts which affected the supply of waters to the main rivers hastening
their disintegration, e.g. Saraswati and its
major tributary, Drishadvati.
Hindu mythology records several legends and anecdotes that are intertwined
with the rivers geologically brief existence. Every aspect of the rivers life,
right from its birth to its journey down the Himalayas and over the plains towards the Sindhu Sagara (ancient Arabian Sea), have found
mention in one religious text or other, like Rigveda,
Brahmana literature, Manusmriti, Mahabharata and the Puranas13. These descriptive
legends have often proved helpful in cataloguing some of the natural events of the period
and linking some of them with the rivers perturbations. For example, the graphic
description of a war between Gods and demons detailed in one of these texts and use of
fire (Agni) in the destruction of a demon hiding
in the mountains which trembled under the onslaught may possibly refer to volcanic and
seismic episodes of the period2. Today, more than 8000 years since the Vedas came into existence, some of the rivers
mentioned therein have become defunct or have shifted from their original path. In the
earlier years of study, their erstwhile courses were mainly inferred from archaeological
evidences. These included sites of ancient settlements (some 1200 are known) of Harappan,
Indus or Saraswati civilizations along river banks, the scripts and seals left behind, and
references in Hindu mythology to river-bank Ashrams
and Yagnya Kundams preserving evidences
about the ritual worship practiced by the ancient inhabitants3,1013.
Over a 3000 year-long period since the Vedic times (Figure 1), the drainage
pattern of many rivers had changed much from that described in the earlier religious
literature. The decline of Saraswati appears to have commenced between 50003000 BC,
probably precipitated by a major tectonic event in the Siwalik Hills of Sirmur region.
Geologic studies14 indicate destabilizing tectonic events had occurred around
the beginning of Pleistocene, about 1.7 my ago in the entire Siwalik domain,
extending from Potwar in Pakistan to Assam in India, resulting in massive landslides and
avalanches. These disturbances, which continued intermittently, were all linked to uplift
of the Himalayas. Presumably, one of these events must have severed the glacier connection
and cut off the supply of glacier melt-waters to this river. As a result, Saraswati became
non-perennial and dependent on monsoon rains. All its majesty and splendour of the Vedic
period dwindled and with the loss of its tributaries, major and minor, Saraswatis
march to oblivion commenced around 3000 BC. Bereft of waters through separation of
its tributaries15, which shifted or got captured by other neighbouring river
systems, Saraswati remained here and there as disconnected pools and lakes and ultimately
became reduced to a dry channel bed. Lunkaransar, Didwana and Sambhar, the Ranns of
Jaisalmer, Pachpadra etc., are a few of these
notable lakes, some of them highly saline today, the only proof to their freshwater
descent being occurrences of gastropod shells in these lake beds1619.
With the decline and disappearance of Saraswati, the ancient civilizations, that it
supported, also faded.
geologic, remote sensing and geophysical surveys
Considerable tectonic activity connected with Himalayan orogeny continued
during the Holocene and later times although uplifts to heights of 30004000 m
were at their peak during 0.80.9 my span. The high elevation of the mountains
perturbed the wind circulation patterns and induced climatic changes. Moderate terrain of
earlier times became rugged and hilly affecting the channels of rivers14. That
was the scenario of the Himalayan region when Saraswati emerged as a major river about
9000 y ago20 and flowed in all splendour during the vedic times till its
decline to an impermanent monsoon dependent state some 4000 y later.
Bulk of earlier studies on Saraswati pertain more to the civilizations that
flourished along its banks and many of the reasons attributed for the decline of this
river were speculative. The impacts of middle to late Quaternary geologic events on the
river systems in this region, however, had received only cursory attention. Awareness to
the potentialities of geologic, meteorologic, climatic and other cyclic events, basically
triggered by plate tectonism, earths orbital and tilt variations and similar global
phenomena came up much later. Attempts to investigate their roles over the decline and
desiccation of Saraswati began only since close of nineteenth century2123
and gained momentum during the last three decades. Oldham23, a geologist of
Geological Survey of India, was one of the first to offer as early as 1886, geological
comments about Saraswati. According to him, the present dry-bed of Ghaggar River
represents Saraswatis former course and that its disappearance was precipitated when
its waters were captured by Sutlej and Yamuna. This view differed from that of several
others who felt that Saraswati vanished due to lack of rainfall. However, later-day
meteorological research about palaeoclimates11,2427, oxygen isotopic
studies36, thermouminescenct (TL) dating28 of wind-borne and
river-borne sands in the Thar desert region, radiocarbon dating of lake-bed deposits48
and archaeological evidences29,30 have all indicated that during early to
middle Pleistocene period this region had enjoyed wetter climate, heavy rainfall and even
recurring floods and that increase in aridity commenced by mid-Holocene (50003000 BC)
Intense investigations during the last thirty years have yielded fruitful
data obtained through ground and satellite based techniques as well as from palaeoseismic,
and palaeoclimatic records all of which had enabled a good reconstruction of the drainage
evolution in northwestern India. In addition, TL-dating of dry-bed sands and isotopic
studies of the groundwater below these channels provided useful links in these
reconstruction efforts. The observed river-shifts and other changes could also be
correlated with specific geologic, seismic or climatic event that occurred during the mid-
to late-Quaternary period. Particularly helpful were the information gathered from LANDSAT
imagery about location of former river courses in the plains and beneath the Thar desert
upto the Rann of Kutch, about existence of palaeo-river valleys and identifying major
structural trends (lineaments) in the region3,16,18,3134. In spite of a
large volume of such data, the chain of natural events during the Quaternary period has
given rise to different interpretations about the former river courses.
Mainly, Indus and Saraswati, were the two major river systems of northwestern
India during the Vedic period but the network of their tributaries, some of which are
known to have deviated from their initial course or become non-existent today, have given
scope for grouping these rivers into convenient classifications. Sridhar et al.18 have classified the rivers into
four main groups (Figure 2) (i) Sindhu (Indus) and its tributaries Vitasta (Jhelum)
and Askini (Chenab); (ii) Shatadru (Sutlej) and its two major tributaries Vipasa (Beas)
and Parasuni or Iravati (Ravi); (iii) Saraswati and its three tributaries Markanda,
Ghaggar and Patialewali, in its upper reaches and a major tributary in its middle course;
(iv) Drishadvati and Lavanavati. Baldev Sahai19 grouped them into Sutlej,
Ghaggar and Yamuna systems while Yash Pal and co-workers32 recognized only two
the Sutlej and the Ghaggar.
Detailed evaluation of data obtained from remote sensing, geophysical,
isotopic and other studies by various workers32,33,3540 have been instrumental in sorting out many
of the earlier speculative inferences and unsolved aspects of Saraswati river. Yash Pal et al.32 have traced the palaeochannel
of this river through Punjab, Haryana and Rajasthan. They found that its course in these
States is clearly highlighted in the LANDSAT imagery by the lush cover of vegetation
thriving on the rich residual loamy soil along its earlier course. According to their
findings, the river disappears abruptly in a depression in Pakistan, instead of in the
sea, an observation shared by a few others also. But, digital enhancement studies35
of satellite IRS-1C data launched in 1995, combined with RADAR imagery (from European
Remote Sensing satellite ERS-1/2) could identify subsurface features and thus recognize
palaeochannels beneath the sands of Thar Desert. These channels are seen to extend upto
Fort Abbas and Marot in Pakistan and appear in a line with present dry bed of Ghaggar
(Figure 3). This river continues as Nara River in Sindh region and opens into the Rann of
Kutch34. Another study33 of satellite derived data has revealed no
palaeochannel link between Indus and Saraswati confirming that the two were independent
rivers; also, the three palaeochannels, south of Ambala, seen to swerve westwards to join
the ancient bed of Ghaggar, are inferred to be tributaries of Saraswati/ Ghaggar, and one
among them, probably Drishadvati (Figure 4). The latter disappeared along with Saraswati
due to shifts of its feeder streams from Siwalik and Aravalli ranges as well as due to the
onset of desertification of Rajasthan15.
Geophysical surveys carried out by the Geological Survey of India to assess
groundwater potential in Bikaner, Ganganagar and Jaisalmer districts in western Rajasthan
desert areas have brought out several zones of fresh and less saline water in the form of
arcuate shaped aquifers similar to several palaeochannels elsewhere in the State. That
these subsurface palaeochannels belong to ancient rivers has been confirmed through
studies37 on hydrogen, oxygen and carbon isotopes (d2H,
14C) on shallow and deep groundwater samples from these districts. The isotopic
work has also indicated that there is no direct headwater connection or recharge to this
groundwater from present day Himalayas. Though the antiquity of these waters and probable
links to ancient rivers are thus established, the subsurface palaeochannel route beneath
the desert sands obtained from hydrogeological investigations, however, differs from that
derived through satellite based studies 16,35,38.
The waning period of Vedic civilization around 3700 BC was also the
period that disrupted both Saraswati and Drishadvati18. Several evidences
indicate that rivers of this area changed their courses often in the last 5000 y
(ref. 32) and one detailed study40
about Saraswati has identified at least four progressive westward shifts in Rajasthan, due
to encroaching sands. In their evaluation of the palaeochannel imagery obtained from
LANDSAT, Yash Pal et al.32 observed a sudden widening of Ghaggar near Patiala
which, they argue, can take place only if a major tributary had joined it. According to
them, ancient Shatadru or Sutlej must have been this tributary and possibly ancient Yamuna
(palaeo-Yamuna) also flowed into Ghaggar, a conclusion they claim is strengthened by
archaeological findings of active life that existed at one time on their banks. During a
subsequent period, Shatadru (Sutlej) swung suddenly westwards near Ropar (Figure 4) to
join Indus (as also Vipas/Beas and Parasuni/Ravi, its two tributaries), deserting its
earlier channel to the sea. This sudden diversion of Sutlej as well as depletion of waters
from Drishadvati due to loss of its feeding streams15, appear to be major
events that heralded the drying up of Saraswati. Several workers attribute this event to
tectonism involving rise of Delhi-Hardwar ridge and uplift in the Aravallis11,15,16,18,32.
Capture of Shatadru (Sutlej) by a tributary of Beas through headward erosion or due to
diversion of Shatadru (Sutlej) through a fault are also considered as possible reasons32.
Structural control over the migration of Saraswati river is also evident from studies41,42
in the Great Indian desert and adjacent parts of western Rajasthan. This area is dissected
by several lineaments, some of which (e.g. LuniSukri
lineament) were reactivated during PleistoceneHolocene period bringing about
alignment of Saraswati with Ghaggar.
the palaeodelta of the Great Rann
Considerable debate has taken place about Saraswatis entry in the
northern part of the Great Rann. Scholars have pointed to references in Rigveda, Manusmriti and Mahabharata about Saraswati disappearing in the
sands at Vinäsana and not in the sea; but at the same time, there is also reference in
some of these ancient texts about a narrow sea, possibly a creek, coming right upto
Bikaner, but which disappeared during the Vedic times10,22. Rigvedic and
archaeological references describe how Saraswati supported inland and marine trade and
travel and that, around 3000 BC, there was continuous flow of this river upto even
the Little Rann13.
The topography at the Great Rann is typically deltaic, developing usually at
the mouth of rivers, confirming entry of a few rivers in the sea at this place.
Neotectonism, reactivating faults and lineaments which are seen criss-crossing this
region, as well as frequent seismicity, apart from Holocene sea-level changes all appear
to have influenced development of a peculiar drainage topography in this area. The tilting
and sinking of land resulting from the tectonic events have carved characteristic uplands
(locally called Bets) representing areas of river mouth deposits, and lowlands which are
sites of distributary channels17,28. Satellite imagery, as well as detailed
mapping, have revealed network of distributaries and extensive graded deposits, products
of Holocene marine regression17. It appears that Indus (Sindhu), Shatadru
(Sutlej), Saraswati, Drishadvati (palaeo-Yamuna) and Lavanavati (possibly an ancestor of
present day Luni river) had independent courses and opened into the Rann separately.
According to Malik
et al.17, at least three rivers proto-Shatadru
(Hakra), Saraswati and Drishadvati must have drained into the Rann around 2000 BC, of
which only Sindhu (Indus) has survived. The original delta complex with relict channels,
including that of Nara, a continuation of Ghaggar, is today better preserved on the
western side but covered by wind-borne deposits on the eastern part of the Great Rann17,43,44.
Yash Pal et al.32
argue that though in the satellite imagery Saraswati/Ghaggar appear to debouch into the
sea or a lake near Marot or Beriwala (Pakistan) (Figure 3), this place is far interior,
and unlikely to be a palaeo-seacoast, even allowing for rise of sea level during the
Holocene marine transgression. In fact studies about coast line changes along the west
coast have shown a much lower sea level some
12,000 y back which rose to the present level only later and had remained there for
the last 7000 y. These findings, therefore, discount the possibilities of a seacoast
at this place45,46 though they do not rule out the rivers entry into the
sea that must have existed further south of this site in those times. It may be mentioned
that Quaternary neotectonism has submerged vast areas of palaeodelta complex, possibly
along with palaeochannels. In this context, it is relevant to take note of the observation
that Saraswatis ancient course in this region is in continuity with another dry
river bedHakra or Sotra which can be traced through Bikaner to Bhahawalpur and Sind
in Pakistan, and finally upto the Rann of Kutch. Such a course appears likely if we
backtrack the delta distributaries inland, when it is noticed they connect up with the
existing palaeochannels there. Some of these are actually extensions of relict channels
seen beneath the sands of Thar Desert, as found out by geophysical and hydrogeological
While tectonism had certainly a major role in shaping the fate of Saraswati
and other rivers, this could not have been the only agent bringing about various changes
that led to its downfall. Even though the role of climate on the disappearance of
Saraswati system was underestimated by some of the earlier workers, undoubtedly it must
have exercised considerable sway during the Holocene, a period during which major climatic
swing has been noted globally26,27,36,47. It is well known that variation in
earths orbit and tilt of earths axis affect the earths climate
(Milankovitch and albedo forces). A drastic weather change related to these phenomena had
peaked around 7000 BC26. Recent studies have shown that the onset of an
arid climate occurred in two pulses
at 47003700 and at 20001700 BC26, both of which had fairly
wide impact not only in India in the desertification of western Rajasthan but in other
countries also, like Africa in the development of Saharan and Nubian deserts. The
desertification is thought to have occurred 5400 y ago (3400 BC) and its onset
greatly affected the monsoon rains and consequently the river systems too. The change from
wetter to arid condition destroyed steadily the vegetation, which in turn affected soil
moisture, its evaporation, atmospheric circulation and precipitation, all important links
in the monsoon evolution chain and, ultimately the climate over the region. However, a
recent study48 of water-table fluctuations and radiocarbon estimates from the
Lunkansar Lake deposit do not support the views about aridity around 3500 BC, the
period when Saraswati and Indus Valley culture were thought to have collapsed. The
chronology emerging from these studies show that the once perennial lakes had ceased to be
so and they had dried and desiccated more than 1500 y before the dated collapse of
Computer based climate simulation studies26, to reproduce the
changes to solar heating of the atmosphere due to variations in earths tilt and
orbit have shown that climate-induced weakening of monsoons over India and north Africa
led to desertification in a span of just 300 years. Needless to point out, when one traces
the topographic evolution of a place, the influence of a combination of many natural
phenomena can be recognized in its build up. It becomes, therefore, very difficult to
point out any one reason for some of the major changes to the topography or river systems.
The climatic swing that led to sweeping changes in northwestern India was triggered by
variations in earths orbit and tilt and these departures are known to recur
periodically. The latter should, therefore, rise the possibilities for a favourable
orientation of these parameters of earth at some future time to initiate climatic
conditions for a re-greening of the
Rajasthan desert, rejuvenation of the dry river beds and, hopefully, for a rebirth of
Saraswati, like Phoenix out of the ashes.
1. Chauhan D. S., Geol. Soc. India, Mem., 1999, 42, 3545.
2. Bhardwaj, D. P., Geol. Soc. India, Mem., 1999, 42, 1524.
3. Radhakrishna, B. P., Geol. Soc. India, Mem., 1999, 42, 513.
4. Bhargava, M. L., in The Geography of Rigvedic India, The
Upper India Publishing House, Lucknow, 1964.
5. Subrahmnya, K. R., Tectonophysics, 1996, 262, 231241.
6. Radhakrishna, B. P., J. Geol. Soc. Ind., 1992, 40, 112.
7. Vaidhyanathan, R., J. Geol. Soc. Ind., 1971, 12, 1442.
8. Sankaran, A. V., Curr. Sci., 1997, 72, 160161.
9. Murthy, S. R. N., in Geological foundation of Vedic civilization,
Manthan, New Delhi, 1995, p. 132.
10. Wakankar, V. S., Geol. Soc. India, Mem., 1999, 42, 5356.
11. Valdiya, K. S., Resonance, May 1996, 1928.
12. Kochhar, R., Geol. Soc. India, Mem., 1999, 42, 4751.
13. Kalyanaraman, S., Geol. Soc. India, Mem., 1999, 42, 2533.
14. Valdiya, K. S., in Dynamic Geology, Educational monographs published
by J. N. Centre for Advanced Studies, Bangalore, University Press (Hyderabad), 1998.
15. Kar, A. and Ghose, B., Geograph. J.,
1984, 156, 221229.
16. Bakliwal, P. C. and
Grover, A. K., Geol. Soc. India, Mem., 1999, 42,
17. Malik, J. N., Merh, S.
S. and Sridhar, V., Geol. Soc. India, Mem., 1999, 42,
18. Sridhar, V., Merh, S.
S., and Malik, J. N., Geol. Soc. India, Mem., 1999, 42,
19. Sahai, B., Geol. Soc. India, Mem., 1999, 42, 121141.
20. Radhakrishna, B. P.,
Key note address, Seminar on Drainage evolution of
NW India with particular reference to the lost river Saraswati, Baroda, 1997.
21. Stein, A., Geogr. J., 1942, 99, 172182.
22. Oldham, C. F., Royal Asiatic Soc. (NS), 1893, 34, 4976.
23. Oldham, R. D., Asiatic Soc. Bengal, 1886, 55, 322343.
24. Ramaswamy, C., Nature, 1968, 217, 628629.
25. Wilhelmy, H., Mem. Geol.
Soc. India, Mem., 1999, 42, 95111.
26. Claussen, M., Kubatzki,
C., Braovkin, V., Ganopolski, A., Hoelzmann, P. and Pachur, H. J., Geophys. Res. Lett., 1999, 26,
27. Street-Perrott, F. A.,
Mitchell, J. F. B., Marchand, D. S. and Brunner, S., Trans.
Roy. Soc. Edinburg (Earth Sciences), 1990, 81, 407427.
28. Jain, M., Tandon, S.
K., Bhatt, S. C., Singhvi, A. K. and Sheila, M., Geol.
Soc. India, Mem., 1999, 42, 273295.
29. Rajaram, N. S., Geol. Soc. India, Mem., 1999, 42, 6369.
30. Kosambi, D. D., Culture and Civilization in Ancient India in Historical
Outline, Routledge & Kegan Paul, London, 1996.
31. Radhakrishna, B. P., J. Geol. Soc. Ind., 1998, 51,
32. Yash Pal., Sahai, B.,
Sood, R. K., and Agrawal, D. P., Proc. Ind. Acad.
Sci (Earth Planet. Sci.), 1980, 89, 317331.
33. Rao, D. P., Geol. Soc. India, Mem., 1999, 42, 237244.
34. Rajawat, A. S., Sastry,
C. V. S. and Narain, A., Geol. Soc. India, Mem., 1999, 42,
35. Rajawat, A. S., Narain,
A., Navalgund, R. R., Pathak, S., Sharma, J. R., Soni, V., Babel, M. K., Srivastava, K. S.
and Sharma, D. C., Geol. Soc. India, Mem.,
1999, 42, 245258.
36. Divakar Naidu, M., Geol. Soc. India, Mem., 1999, 42, 303314.
37. Nair, A. R., Navada, S.
V. and Rao, S. M., Geol. Soc. India, Mem., 1999, 42,
38. Satyamurthy, K.,
Sharma, J. K. and Paul, P. C., in Reviews and Scope
of Geophysical Surveys in the Desert of Rajasthan, Misc. Publication, 1982, vol. 49.
39. Ahmad, K. S. and
Abbasi, A. A., Geogr. Rev., 1960, XV, 3849.
40. Ghose, B., Kar, A. and
Hussain, Z., Geog. J. London, 1979, 145, 446451.
41. Ramasamy, S. M., Geol. Soc. India, Mem., 1999, 42, 153162.
42. Bakliwal, P. C. and
Grover, A. K., Rec. Geol. Surv. India, 1988, 116,
43. Gupta, S. K., Ind. J. Earth Sci., 1975, 2, 163175.
44. Juyal, N., Pant, R. K.,
Bhushan, R. and Somayajulu, B. L. K., Geol. Soc.
India, Mem, 1995, 32, 372379.
45. Merh, S. S., Proc. Indian Natl. Sci. Acad., 1992, 58,
46. Hashimi, N. H., Nigam,
R., Nair, R. R. and Rajagopalan, G.,
J. Geol. Soc. Indian, 1995, 46, 157162.
47. Sirocko, F., Sarnthein,
M., Erlenkeuser, H., Lnge, H., Arnold, M. and Duplessy, J. C., Nature, 1993, 364, 322324.
48. Enzel, Y., Ely, L. L.,
Mishra, S., Ramesh, R., Amit, R., Lazar, B., Rangaraju, S. N., Baker, V. R. and Sandler,
A., Science, 1999, 284, 125128.