- Organization of work in preindustrial times
- Organization of work in the industrial age
The craft guilds
In contrast to the land-bound serfs, townspeople of the Middle Ages were free. Some engaged in commerce and formed groups known as merchant guilds. The majority, however, were small merchant-craftsmen, organized in craft guilds as masters (of highest accomplishment and status), journeymen (at a middle level), and apprentices (beginners). The medieval master was typically many things at once: a skilled workman himself; a foreman, supervising journeymen and apprentices; an employer; a buyer of raw or semifinished materials; and a seller of finished products. Because medieval craftsmen employed simple hand tools, a workman’s own skill determined the quantity and quality of his output. Apprentices and journeymen underwent long periods of learning under the guidance of a more experienced workman. When he could produce a “masterpiece” that met the approval of the guild masters, the craftsman would gain full admission into the guild.
Craft guilds were organized through regulations. By controlling conditions of entrance into a craft, guilds limited the labour supply. By defining wages, hours, tools, and techniques, they regulated both working conditions and the production process. Quality standards and prices were also set. Monopolistic in nature, the guilds, either singly or in combination, sought complete control over their own local markets. In order to attain and protect their monopoly, the guilds acquired a political voice and in some locations achieved the right to elect a number of their own members to the town council. In some towns, such as Liège, Utrecht, and Cologne, guilds achieved complete political control. The 32 craft guilds in Liège, for example, so dominated the town after 1384 that they named the town council and governors and required all important civic decisions to be approved by a majority vote of their membership.
Craft guilds reached their peak prosperity in the 14th century. Specialties had become so differentiated that larger towns typically had more than 100 guilds. In northern Europe, for example, at the beginning of the period, carpenters built houses and made furniture. In time, furniture making became a new craft, that of joinery, and the joiners broke from the carpenters to establish their own guilds. The wood-carvers and turners (who specialized in furniture turned on a lathe) founded guilds also. Those who painted and gilded furniture and wood carvings were also represented by a separate guild.
This era of intense specialization was marked by a countermovement toward amalgamation of different crafts—a tendency that reflected the growth of the market and the desire of enterprising masters to expand their trading abilities. This came at the expense of the handicraft function. As craft differentiation proliferated, numerous crafts wound up producing the same or similar articles. This stimulated competitive forces among craftsmen who needed to assure themselves of raw materials and a market. Because of this, masters were tempted to employ members of other crafts, and conflicts inevitably arose.
The same widening of the market led to differentiation of classes within a craft. As the trading function grew more important, those who remained craftsmen fell into a condition of dependence upon the traders. Eventually, merchant guilds—originally representatives of traders only—absorbed the craft guilds.
The craft guilds also suffered a breakdown in structure. Because the masters sought to retain the profits of the growing market for themselves, they made it increasingly difficult for journeymen to enter their class, preferring instead to employ them as wage workers. Apprentices similarly had little hope of rising to mastership. Thus, the master-journeyman-apprentice relationship gave way to an employer-employee arrangement, with the master performing the functions of merchant while his employees did craftwork. Conditions for development of the early industrial system rose out of the disintegration of this craft-guild system. The excluded journeymen eventually became a class of free labourers who practiced their craft for wages outside the town walls—and outside the limitations of the guild regulations.
Certain industries that were small at the outset of the Middle Ages grew to be quite large in scale, and this growth influenced changes in the organization of work. The most important of these was the wool-cloth industry.
For reasons of cost and availability, wool was the basic clothing material in western Europe until the beginning of modern times. Linen and silk were too costly for any large-scale use, and cotton was grown only in small volumes. The production of cloth from wool involved several time-consuming steps: cleaning and carding (straightening curled and knotted fibres sheared from the sheep), spinning the fibres into thread, weaving the thread into cloth, shearing off knots and roughness, and dyeing. All these processes could be carried on within a single peasant household, for they required only simple apparatus and rudimentary skills. Typically, children carded the wool, women operated the spinning wheel, and men worked the loom shuttles.
The cloth produced by such crude tools and relatively unskilled workers was rough but serviceable. Those above the peasant class, however, desired the more comfortable and attractive clothing that was produced by skilled craftsmen. The resulting demand for better textiles caused the industry to outgrow the peasant household means of production. A new organization of work, called the putting-out system, was instituted in which a merchant clothier bought raw wool, “put it out” to be carded, spun, and woven into cloth, and then carried the cloth through the finishing processes with the help of skilled craftsmen. Because the spinners and weavers remained peasants, they also earned part of their living from the plots on which their cottages stood, meaning that agriculture and industry were pursued as something of an integrated enterprise. The man could work in the field while his wife spun, and in winter the man helped with textile production. At harvest time every hand was out in the fields, leaving the spinning wheels and looms temporarily idle.
The putting-out system differed from peasant household production in that the merchant clothier, or entrepreneur, bought the raw wool and owned the product through all stages of its preparation (the cottage workers still owned their own spinning wheels, looms, and other tools). Thus, the peasant farmer came to work on materials that did not belong to him. On the other hand, the work was performed at home (known as the cottage system or domestic system) rather than in a factory, and work proceeded at the worker’s pace. The merchant simply organized the work by arranging the order and sequence of the various technical processes—he did not supervise the workers’ actual performance. Nevertheless, the merchant clothier who began putting out cloth came to control the entire production process. This represented a step toward the industrial capitalism that emerged in the 19th century.