arbitrage, business operation involving the purchase of foreign exchange, gold, financial securities, or commodities in one market and their almost simultaneous sale in another market, in order to profit from price differentials existing between the markets. Opportunities for arbitrage may keep recurring because of the working of market forces. Arbitrage generally tends to eliminate price differentials between markets. Whereas in less developed countries arbitrage can consist of the buying and selling of commodities in different villages within the country, in highly developed countries the term is generally used to refer to international operations involving foreign-exchange rates, short-term interest rates, prices of gold, and prices of securities.
Foreign-exchange arbitrage, confined to spot-exchange markets—in which exchange is bought and sold for immediate delivery—may involve two or more exchange centres (two-point arbitrage or multiple-point arbitrage). For example, assume that Country A’s sovereign is exchanging at two to the dollar in New York City, while Country B’s franc is valued at five to the dollar. Logically, Country A’s sovereign should exchange at two sovereigns to five francs. But for some reason banks in Country B are paying four francs for two sovereigns. A New York City operator with $100,000 at his disposal may then make three moves: (1) buy 500,000 francs in New York City in the form of an electronic transfer to his account in Country B; (2) instruct his correspondent in Country B to use a similar amount of francs to buy 250,000 of Country A’s sovereigns at the going rate of four francs for two sovereigns, in the form of an electronic transfer to his account in Country A; and (3) sell the same amount of sovereigns in New York City at two to the dollar for a total of $125,000, or a profit of $25,000. Foreign exchange operators will continue to do this until the heavy demand for francs in New York City has raised their price and eliminated the profit.
Opportunities for interest arbitrage arise when the money rates differ among countries. Gold arbitrage and securities arbitrage operate in principle very much like commodity arbitrage in the domestic market, except that in the two former cases exchange rates are important, either because funds must be remitted abroad for the operation or because the proceeds must be brought home at the end of the operation.
With the increase in corporate mergers and takeovers in the 1980s, a form of stock speculation called risk arbitrage arose. It was based on the fact that a company or corporate raider, when trying to merge with or purchase a corporation, usually must offer to buy that company’s stock at a price 30 or 40 percent higher than the current market price, and the target company’s price usually rises to near the offered price on the open market once the takeover attempt has been publicly announced. Risk arbitrageurs try to identify in advance those companies that are targeted for a takeover; they then buy blocks of the company’s stock before a tender offer has been announced and sell that stock after the merger or takeover has been completed, thus realizing large profits. The risk is that the merger or takeover attempt will not succeed, in which case the stock price usually falls back down again, thus incurring large losses for the arbitrageur.
Risk arbitrageurs’ activities can either facilitate or hinder the efforts of corporate raiders and investment banks to consummate a takeover attempt, and there are temptations for those parties to communicate advance knowledge of their takeover attempts to arbitrageurs, who can then speculate in the target company’s stock with a minimum of risk. This is a form of insider trading and is illegal in the United States and some other countries. Such was the case with the best known American arbitrageur, Ivan Boesky, who, while under government investigation in 1986, admitted that he had engaged in some highly profitable insider trading and was fined $100,000,000 as a consequence.