Software Project Management
SEI Curriculum Module SEI-CM-21-1.0
James E. Tomayko
The Wichita State University
Harvey K. Hallman
Software Engineering Institute
Carnegie Mellon University
Software Engineering Institute
This work was sponsored by the U.S. Department of Defense.
Draft For Public Review
The Software Engineering Institute (SEI) is a federally funded research and development center, operated by Carnegie
Mellon University under contract with the United States Department of Defense.
The SEI Education Program is developing a wide range of materials to support software engineering education. A
curriculum module identifies and outlines the content of a specific topic area, and is intended to be used by an instructor
in designing a course. A support materials package includes materials helpful in teaching a course. Other materials
under development include model curricula, textbooks, educational software, and a variety of reports and proceedings.
SEI educational materials are being made available to educators throughout the academic, industrial, and government
communities. The use of these materials in a course does not in any way constitute an endorsement of the course by the
SEI, by Carnegie Mellon University, or by the United States government.
SEI curriculum modules may be copied or incorporated into other materials, but not for profit, provided that appropriate
credit is given to the SEI and to the original author of the materials.
Comments on SEI educational publications, reports concerning their use, and requests for additional information should
be addressed to the Director of Education, Software Engineering Institute, Carnegie Mellon University, Pittsburgh,
Comments on this curriculum module may also be directed to the module authors.
James E. Tomayko Harvey K. Hallman
Computer Science Department Software Engineering Institute
The Wichita State University Carnegie Mellon University
Wichita, KS 67208 Pittsburgh, PA 15213
Copyright 1989 by Carnegie Mellon University
Draft For Public Review
Software Project Management
Rich Pethia, Lauren Roberts Gold, Betty Deimel, and Capsule Description 1
Watts Humphrey of the SEI and Brad Brown of Boeing
Military Airplanes made important suggestions for the
content and organization of this module. Dick Fairley and Objectives 1
John Brackett did helpful reviews at a critical stage in its Prerequisite Knowledge 2
development. Ron Wild, of Wichita State, helped im-
Module Content 3
plement revisions and maintain “requirements trace-
ability.” Jim Rankin, of Carnegie Mellon, carried on this Outline 3
work through the latter stages of editing. Jim Tomayko’s Annotated Outline 4
students at Wichita State, who suffered through early use
Teaching Considerations 14
of this module, gave valuable feedback.
We would also like to thank Lionel Deimel and Linda
Pesante of the SEI for technical, organizational, and stylis-
Teaching Techniques 14
tic assistance. SEI Video Course 14
Software Support 14
Management References 15
and Related Publications 28
SEI-CM-21-1.0 Draft For Public Review iii
Software Project Management
Module Revision History
Version 1.0 (July 1989) Draft for public review
iv Draft For Public Review SEI-CM-21-1.0
Software Project Management
Capsule Description such teams, so some discussion of scaling up is in-
cluded. Also, information about assessing the ef-
Software project management encompasses the ficacy of the software development process is in-
knowledge, techniques, and tools necessary to man- cluded.
age the development of software products. This cur- We believe that software project management should
riculum module discusses material that managers be part of software engineering programs because
need to create a plan for software development, the technology of developing software is so closely
using effective estimation of size and effort, and to tied to the techniques of management. What is de-
execute that plan with attention to productivity and scribed here is first-line management; product man-
quality. Within this context, topics such as risk agement and higher levels of management are the
management, alternative life-cycle models, develop- domains of schools of business. Some of the mate-
ment team organization, and management of tech- rial discussed here, such as scheduling tools like
nical people are also discussed. PERT and concepts like tracking progress, is also
part of project management courses offered by busi-
ness schools; but the point of this module is to con-
sider such tools and concepts in the context of soft-
Philosophy ware development.
Software project management remains different
from project management in other, more established
fields for a number of reasons: Software is a “brain Objectives
product” only, unconstrained by the laws of physics
or by the limits of manufacturing processes. It is The objectives for this module are presented in three
difficult to detect and prevent defects in software. groups—in a set of general objectives and in sets of
Software can be highly complex. Finally, as a disci- more specific objectives in the cognitive and affec-
pline, software development is so young that meas- tive domains. The latter sets of objectives are useful
urable, effective techniques are not yet available, in constructing specific courses or other units of in-
and those that are available are not well-calibrated. struction and in writing examinations for them.
Despite these difficulties, there is an increasing body
of knowledge about software project management. General Objectives:
This module presents that knowledge and also points 1. The student will understand the requirements
to promising new conceptual material. for the content of a project management plan.
The intent of the authors is for the material in this 2. The student will be able to write a plan for a
module to be useful in designing either a stand-alone small project according to an established stan-
graduate course on software project management or dard.
in preparing units of courses dealing with the early 3. The student will understand the role of the
phases of the software development life cycle. Be- manager in each phase of the software devel-
cause of the level of experience of typical graduate opment life cycle.
students and their probable career paths, we empha-
size methods, tools, and techniques sufficient to run
small projects of 15 persons or fewer. Students may
eventually run larger groups, consisting of teams of
SEI-CM-21-1.0 Draft For Public Review 1
Software Project Management
Cognitive Domain Objectives: 19. List three techniques to restore a failing
At the completion of a course based on all the mate-
rial in this module, a student will be able to: 20. List three indicators of the level of an
1. Explain what aspects of software production organization’s ability to perform the software
are different from hardware production and development process.
what aspects are similar.
Affective Domain Objectives:
2. Define quality, productivity, and risk reduction
within the context of effective software project 1. The student will appreciate the key roles man-
management. agers play in software development efforts.
3. Describe, compare, and contrast at least two in- 2. The student will appreciate economic and
nately different models of software develop- customer-driven factors and their role in the
ment resource estimation in the areas of: cost, eventual form of the software product.
personnel, physical resources, schedule, size of
the product, and complexity of the product.
4. Explain the advantages and disadvantages of
prototypes for risk management. Prerequisite Knowledge
5. Define inspection technology and its applica-
Students should have prior experience as members
tion, and relate it to quality improvement.
of a software development team. If they do not have
6. List three examples of standards in different actual industrial experience, membership on a stu-
arenas, such as government, corporate, and dent project team of several persons can be sufficient
within teams. if the team was large enough so the students can ap-
7. Define, compare, and contrast the following preciate the necessity of good management prin-
methods of project team organization: chief ciples and activities. Students should also have
programmer, surgical, egoless, democratic, and knowledge of the aspects of software development at
hierarchical. a depth equal to that presented in a one-term intro-
8. Describe methods of tracking factors such as ductory course on the subject.
effort and resources during the development
9. Define the objectives and context of the fol-
lowing formal reviews: requirements, prelimi-
nary design, critical design, and acceptance.
10. List and define three methods of progress re-
11. Define configuration management and describe
its role in project management.
12. Define quality assurance and describe its role
in project management.
13. List three factors that are prime motivators of
software development personnel.
14. List three factors that demoralize software de-
15. Identify two techniques useful in the assess-
ment of completed a project.
16. List three special considerations in managing
sustaining engineering efforts.
17. Explain how requirements specification in-
fluences the development of the project plan.
18. Describe at least two alternative life-cycle
models and explain in what situations their use
might be desirable.
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Software Project Management
The scope of this curriculum module is unusually (vi) Process and process assessment
broad. In-depth coverage of all individual topics is (vii) Development methods
not possible, nor is it possible to cite all important
references. Wherever possible, the reader is referred (viii) Metrics
to other SEI curriculum modules, both for more de- (ix) Configuration management
tailed topic discussion and for additional references. (x) Testing and quality assurance
For convenience, cited curriculum modules and re-
(xi) Capacity planning
lated SEI publications are listed separately in the
bibliographies. e. Estimating—what it takes to do the job
(i) Cost (direct and indirect)
Outline (iv) Size and complexity of the product
I. Introduction to Software Project Management (v) Risk determination
1. The Nature of Software Production (vi) Role of requirements and design in
2. Key Objectives of Effective Management estimating
a. Quality f. Financial planning—budgeting
b. Productivity g. Resource allocation
c. Risk reduction h. Organizational considerations (teams,
3. The Role of the Software Project Manager
II. Planning the Project
j. Human factors and usability
1. Business Planning
k. Tools and environments
a. Determining objectives
l. Transition of the product to the user
b. Forecasting demand for the product
III. Managing the Project
c. Proposal writing
1. Managing the Task
d. Requirements analysis
a. Project control
e. Legal issues (patent, copyright, liability,
warranty) (i) Managing to the plan
2. Technical Planning (ii) Reviews
a. Life-cycle models (iii) Feedback and reporting mechanisms
b. Types of plans (iv) Configuration management
c. Plan documentation methods (v) Quality control and quality assurance
(i) Work breakdown structures (vi) Managing change
(ii) PERT and CPM (vii) Readjusting goals and milestones
(iii) Gantt charts b. Risk management
(iv) Standards c. Testing phases
d. Planning for risk management and control d. Formalized support activities
(i) Entry and exit criteria 2. Managing the Team
(ii) Intermediate checkpoints a. Team organizations
(iii) Performance prediction and analysis b. Recruiting and staffing—picking the right
(iv) Prototyping and modeling
c. Technical leadership
(v) Inspections and reviews
SEI-CM-21-1.0 Draft For Public Review 3
Software Project Management
d. Avoiding obsolescence—training, etc. documentation associated with small software proj-
ects. Many large software projects are in the same
3. Managing the Context state, but they are further hampered by the com-
a. Communications skill plexity of the organization, in addition to the com-
b. Decision theory plexity of the product. This is often true with large
hardware projects, but software development has ad-
c. Business management ditional disadvantages. There are fewer tools avail-
d. Assessing the organization’s ability to able to help in software construction; and the profes-
perform the process sion has not matured to the same level as other engi-
e. Probability and statistics
4. Managing Product Support and Maintenance 2. Key Objectives of Effective Management
IV. Evaluating the Project A software development manager must keep in mind
quality, productivity, and risk reduction throughout
the planning and execution of product development.
[Brooks75] is an outstanding overview of these con-
I. Introduction to Software Project Management Quality is best achieved by careful adherence to
1. The Nature of Software Production standards, effective development techniques, and
periodic technical review throughout the process.
Software project management is different from man- Management must cooperate and coordinate with
aging hardware-like projects because of the different quality assurance organizations, if they exist
nature of software itself. Software products are gen- [IBM85, Deming86]. The Japanese emphasis on
erally more complex than the hardware on which it continuous quality improvement and its remark-
runs. Frequently problems too complex or expen- able results offer important lessons for software
sive to solve in the electronics are passed off to the developers [Mann88].
supporting software—rotor position in a stepper
motor, print wheel position on a line printer, position b. Productivity
of a satellite relative to a star. There is basically no
manufacturing process. The development process Increased productivity lowers costs. In the cur-
ends with delivery to the user. Problems normally rent state of development technology, the most
discovered during manufacturing have to be found important productivity factors are the ability of
during development. Inspections (reviews) that are the individual software engineers, the tools they
normally part of the manufacturing process have to work with, and the work environment [Boehm87,
be moved back into the development phase.
Since software frequently provides the interface to
c. Risk reduction
the user, any frustrations with the system tend to be Managers should identify the most difficult parts
focused on the software. As a result, there may be of a particular development and systematically
frequent changes in the requirements description. come to grips with efficient solutions. Require-
Since it appears to most people that it is easier to ments that can become “show-stoppers” later
change the software than the hardware, most of must be dealt with early in the process. (See
these requirements changes end up being made in [Boehm88] for information on risk-reduction life
the software, which is often a mistake. cycles.)
Large numbers of people, often geographically dis- 3. The Role of the Software Project Manager
tributed, are needed to solve many of the more im-
portant problems that software is used to solve. This The role of the “manager” is to plan, organize, staff,
requires extensive communications mechanisms in direct, and control. He or she deals with ideas,
order to complete the software product. things, and people. Software development, how-
ever, involves more “scheduled creativity” than
Many times software engineers lack the domain most other fields of endeavor. The manager has to
knowledge necessary to truly understand the require- commit to delivery of copies of the product before
ments. There is often no way to tell how long it will the product has been completely developed. In most
take to acquire this knowledge. As a result, it is engineering professions, the creative development of
difficult to plan, estimate the size of, change, and the product occurs before the commitment to build
produce software. To make matters worse, there is or manufacture one or more copies.
often little discipline in the development process and
4 Draft For Public Review SEI-CM-21-1.0
Software Project Management
The software project manager has to plan and organ- The contract may sometimes be a “fixed price”
ize activities of his or her staff in such a way that contract, where the developer agrees to do the
there is confidence that the promised end product work for a fixed amount of money. During the
will be delivered on time, within the cost projected, proposal writing process, much of the project
and with the quality expected. This is accomplished planning will be accomplished or approximated.
by assembling a staff that is qualified to do the tasks It is often completed or redone again after the
required, by directing and redirecting the staff as contract is received.
necessary, and by putting the controls in place that
will provide the information necessary to direct the d. Requirements analysis
staff to its completed assignment. These controls It is important that the requirements be analyzed,
are frequently referred to as risk management. so that it is understood what is needed from a
II. Planning the Project functional characteristics point of view. This is
discussed in the curriculum module, Software
When it has been determined that a software product Requirements [Brackett88].
will be developed, a project or other organizational en-
tity is put in place to accomplish it. This project or e. Legal issues (patent, copyright, liability,
entity should develop the necessary plans to accom- warranty)
plish the task. Managers should have knowledge of whether al-
Project planning can be divided into business plans, gorithms qualify for patent or copyright protec-
which concentrate on the relationship with the cus- tion. Managers should also verify that software
tomer, and technical plans used internally in the devel- meets liability and warranty requirements. Useful
opment group. readings include [Chisum86], [Newell86],
[Holmes82], [Friedman87], and [Cottrell86]. Also
1. Business Planning see Intellectual Property Protection for Software
a. Determining objectives [Samuelson89] and Software Development and
Licensing Contracts [Samuelson88].
The function, cost, and price objectives for a soft-
ware product need to be determined. Also, the 2. Technical Planning
objectives of the project developing the product a. Life-cycle models
need to be stated [Kotler88, Kerin87].
The planning process is dependent upon the life-
b. Forecasting demand for the product cycle model used by the development organiza-
In some environments, a software product is de-
veloped on speculation that there is a market for Teaching Consideration: It is important that the stu-
the product. (See [Radice88], pp. 60-68.) A prod- dent be exposed to life-cycle models of software devel-
uct forecast is used to estimate the number of opment before he or she gets very far into the planning
units that it will be possible to sell. It is a func- process. This is necessary in order to best understand
who does what. See Models of Software Evolution:
tion of projected development cost, price of the
Life Cycle and Process [Scacchi87] for an understand-
potential product, and the time at which the prod- ing of software life-cycle models.
uct can be made available. In lieu of a contract to
build a product for a specific organization, soft-
ware development houses find it necessary to b. Types of plans
know what the potential market for the product There are a number of plans developed in support
may be before committing large amounts of ven- of a large software project. These are described
ture resources to the project. Chapter 15 of in chapter 7 of [Shere88]. They include:
[Anderson85] gives an overview of general
forecasting methods. • Program master plan
• Management plan
c. Proposal writing
• Development plan
In many environments, a contract is sought with • Configuration management plan
an organization or the government. This is
• Quality assurance plan
usually initiated by a request for a proposal and
price, sometimes called an RFP. The software • Maintenance plan
organization may, by itself or in conjunction with • Test plan
another organization, prepare a proposal in the • Integration plan
hopes of obtaining a contract for the work. This
may be in the form of a “cost plus” contract, • Documentation plan
where the income from the contract is based on • Transition plan
the cost to complete it plus an agreed-to profit. • Firmware development plan
SEI-CM-21-1.0 Draft For Public Review 5
Software Project Management
c. Plan documentation methods standards to either supplement those already
(i) Work breakdown structures placed upon them or to establish an orderly de-
velopment process. All of these standards have
Work breakdown structures (WBS) are used to an effect on the planning process in the format
divide large projects into separate, manageable of the plans and the sequence of activities to be
tasks [Shere88], similar to the way software is accomplished.
divided using stepwise refinement. They are
sometimes used to break the work down or- DOD-STD-2167A [DoD88] is the software de-
ganizationally [Evans83]. They are used velopment standard for organizations contract-
throughout the planning process to refine the ing with the U. S. Department of Defense.
work structure and identify who does what. At NASA-Sfw-DID-02-ADA [NASA86a] is the
the lowest level, they are used to identify the software management plan standard for organi-
specific piece of work (work package) to be zations contracting with NASA.
accomplished. They do not show sequence or
time relationships. Determining the work IEEE Std 1058.1-1987 [IEEE87] is the IEEE
breakdown structure for a project is discussed statement for software project management
in [Tausworthe80]. plans for those organizations that do not have
standards required of them by contract.
(ii) PERT and CPM
d. Planning for risk management and control
Activity networks (PERT charts) and critical
path methods (CPM) are used to describe de- Risk management is the process of assuring that
pendencies, in flow diagram form, between the all problems are discovered early enough so that
project parts. They identify the duration of an there is time to recover from the problem without
activity, the start and completion dates, and the missing schedules or overspending the budget.
critical path to getting a project completed. A Control mechanisms are put in place in order for
critical path is the longest path in the network, the feedback to occur at the proper time.
thus delays to any activity on it delays comple-
tion of the project. [Cori85] is a good summary (i) Entry and exit criteria
of how to implement these techniques. A All distinct phases of the project should have
deeper treatment of network models and the entry and exit criteria [Radice88]. These should
use of PERT/CPM models are discussed in be documented as part of the development
Chapters 9 and 10 of [Anderson85]. plan. No phase should be started if the entry
(iii) Gantt charts criteria have not been satisfied or the reasons
for exceptions to the criteria are not known and
Gantt charts [Clark38] are similar in function to agreed upon. No phase is complete until the
PERT and CPM but show the dependencies in exit criteria are satisfied. For example, coding
bar chart form rather than flow form [Shere88]. of a module should not begin until the design
The charts use elapsed time across the hori- of the module is complete. Exceptions are
zontal axes and activities along the vertical sometimes negotiated.
axes. They are especially useful in identifying
who does what and determining whether all of (ii) Intermediate checkpoints
the activities will be finished by certain dates. Some activities in the planning process are
Although Gantt charts are not useful for show- aimed solely at reducing risk. Setting up a
ing interdependences, as are PERT charts, they series of checkpoints throughout the planning
do more easily show overlapping activities and period and treating each checkpoint as though
individual responsibilities. it were an actual delivery date reduces the risks
MacProject is a tool that illustrates PERT and of missing the final delivery date, of burning
Gantt charts [MacProject89]. people out, and of overrunning budget costs.
(iv) Standards To accomplish this, checkpoints are established
with intervals of four to six months, but at sig-
When software organizations are fulfilling con- nificant places in the plan, where real progress
tracts, they are often required to follow the de- can be measured. With small projects, it may
velopment standards of the originator of the be that these significant checkpoints are estab-
contract. In addition, many companies have lished about one-fourth, one-half, and three-
their own development standards that either fourths of the way to the final delivery date.
supplement the contractor’s requirements or
apply to all software development groups in For each checkpoint, a list of internal
that company. Development groups also create deliverables is established. All parts of the
6 Draft For Public Review SEI-CM-21-1.0
Software Project Management
project are managed so that completion of developed to get a better understanding of the
these deliverables occurs on or before the workability of the approach. The prototype is
checkpoint date. This has the effect of creating usually put aside, and the product is developed
a number of points where there is increased with the knowledge gained. In some cases, the
activity, rather than only one, at the end. This prototype is not discarded but is evolved into
increased activity is of a lower intensity and is the final product. The “spiral model” form of
spread out over the project. Its intensity is felt the development process [Boehm84a, Boehm-
only by those working extra time to meet the 88] is based on this technique. Time must be
checkpoints. It also spreads the overtime re- allowed in the development plans for prototyp-
quired to resolve problems over the project, in- ing and modeling if the nature of the product
stead of requiring all of it at the end. Overtime requires it.
in itself is a risk-taking activity (see below).
When there is only one major date, the final (v) Inspections and reviews
delivery date, the intensity of activity comes to Inspections, walkthroughs, and reviews are
a higher peak; it is usually felt by everyone; techniques aimed at reducing the number of er-
and it often results in missing the final delivery rors that pass into the next phase of the devel-
date or delivering a lower quality product, or opment process. These techniques are de-
both. In general, the later problems are dis- scribed in detail in the curriculum module The
covered, the harder they are to fix. Software Technical Review Process [Collofel-
Overtime reduces the effectiveness of in- lo88b]. (See also [Cross88].) The more formal
dividuals on future work. Putting an individual and most effective of these is the inspection
on overtime for a short spurt can be effective in process [Fagan76].
overcoming a problem. However, it reduces (vi) Process and process assessment
the team’s ability to resolve problems yet to be
discovered. The longer a person is on contin- Every development project uses a process of
uous overtime, the less effective he or she is. some form. It may be unplanned or ad hoc. It
Moreover, it has been found that in areas where may be repeatable or well-defined. It may
the effectiveness of an individual depends on even be well-managed and optimized [Hum-
his or her creative thinking and is not paced by phrey88]. The process has a strong influence
a mechanical device, the productivity of an in- on the development plans. [Humphrey89] treats
dividual diminishes the longer that person is on this topic in detail.
overtime. That is, if you increase a person’s
working hours by two or three hours every day (vii) Development methods
and continue this for a long period of time It is essential that all software development
(several months), the person will become less projects follow some effective development
effective than he or she was before the over- method. The curriculum module Introduction
time started [Metzger87]. to Software Design [Budgen89] has references
to many of the more popular design methods.
(iii) Performance prediction and analysis
See also [Scacchi87] for additional information
When performance characteristics are included on life-cycle–specific methods.
in the requirements specification, it may be
necessary to develop a performance model in (viii) Metrics
order to determine the possibility of meeting Software metrics are a major ingredient in the
the requirements [Sauer81, Ferrari78, Shan- proper management of a software project.
non75]. It may also be necessary to analyze the Without them, the manager has little knowl-
performance of the product as it is developed, edge of what the project is doing or how it will
in order to ensure that predictions are being meet its commitments. The curriculum module
met. Occasionally, the characteristics of the Software Metrics [Mills88] addresses this sub-
hardware also have to be modeled [Laven- ject in detail.
berg83]. The plan may be affected by these
efforts. (ix) Configuration management
(iv) Prototyping and modeling Software configuration management encom-
passes the disciplines and techniques of initiat-
During software product development, it is of- ing, evaluating, and controlling change to soft-
ten discovered in the early stages that there is ware products. It emphasizes the importance
not enough confidence in the technology to be of configuration control in managing software
assured that it will work properly when it is production. See Software Configuration Man-
completed. A prototype or working (some- agement [Tomayko87a].
times simulation) model of the technology is
SEI-CM-21-1.0 Draft For Public Review 7
Software Project Management
tion points methods depend on identifying spe-
Teaching Consideration: Here the emphasis is on cific functions within the software in order to
configuration management planning. Later (see calculate a number that indicates relative com-
III.1.a.iv), it is on implementation.
plexity. [Kemerer87] is a good evaluation of
the effectiveness of the techniques.
(x) Testing and quality assurance
Even the most perfectly developed product
needs to be tested. A software project manager It is necessary to determine what sort of com-
needs to know the different types of testing and puting and other physical resources are re-
the purpose for each. Introduction to Software quired in order to successfully complete a proj-
Verification and Validation [Collofello88a] pro- ect. This activity includes decisions relating to
vides an overview of testing concerns, while development environments, which have a
Unit Testing and Analysis [Morell89] provides a heavy influence on productivity. People-
more detailed description of one aspect. loading estimates are related to time and cost
factors, and consist of a variety of tradeoffs.
Testing activities are aimed at discovering er- People-loading estimates can be made using
rors in the product after it has been created, so COCOMO. Information on environments is in
that action can be taken to remove them. Qual- [Dart87].
ity assurance activities are aimed at preventing
errors from getting into the product, keeping (iii) Time
them from multiplying, and determining how The direct relationship of time to cost and
many are in the product when it is delivered. resources is best shown by analysis of data
(See Quality control and quality assurance, generated by using COCOMO. [Boehm81]
below.) gives many examples.
(xi) Capacity planning (iv) Size and complexity of the product
Capacity planning is just as important in soft- Cost estimation models depend on accurate
ware development as it is in hardware manu- size estimates. Estimating by analogy, using
facturing. Misjudging the organization’s abil- Putnam’s model, conversion from function
ity to conduct a project can be very costly. Ad- points, and wideband Delphi techniques are
ditional people may have to be hired. This some size estimation methods [Putnam80].
could require additional space and facilities.
Computer resources may not be adequate for (v) Risk determination
the additional responsibility. Section 12.1 in
[Shere88] addresses this subject. Failures in cost estimation can have drastic ef-
fects on the project. Identifying areas of pos-
e. Estimating—what it takes to do the job sible risk and taking action to understand them
(i) Cost (direct and indirect) can minimize their effects. For fallacies in es-
timation, see [Abdel-Hamid86] and [Kemerer-
Understanding the origin of software costs is 87].
an important first step in cost estimation
[Brooks75]. (vi) Role of requirements and design in
The cost of developing a product contains
many variables: the direct costs attributed to Most cost estimating techniques need a re-
the effort spent directly on the project as well quirements document. Function points are
as the indirect costs that occur, such as office based on an analysis of the requirements docu-
space, company benefits, etc. There have been ment. Other cost estimation techniques, such
many approaches to developing resource as COCOMO, depend on some level of design
models over the years [Basili80]. Cost estima- being complete. The design should be at least
tion models are gaining popularity. at a level from which lines-of-code estimates
COCOMO, based on lines of code, is described may be approximated.
in [Boehm81] and summarized in [Boehm84a].
f. Financial planning—budgeting
Function points are described in [Albrecht83].
Modifications of function points have recently All projects have to be concerned with financial
become available [Symons88]. [Pressman87] plans. These plans are concerned with assuring
has clear introductions to how to use both func- that the project has the funds to accomplish its
tion points and COCOMO. The chief dif- objectives. The budget is tied to the cost estima-
ference between the two is that COCOMO is tion process. It is a plan that includes how the
based on lines-of-code estimation, while func- money will be spent and for what it has been al-
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Software Project Management
located. Personnel expenses, purchase orders, automated environments that cover the entire de-
and computer expense accounts are some of the velopment process [Radice85].
items charged against the budget. Other items,
such as facilities and benefits, are usually ac- l. Transition of the product to the user
cumulated into overhead charges and need to be Whenever a software product is to be used out-
considered. A variance report (usually available side of the organization that developed it, some
monthly) shows how the project is spending preparation has to be made for its use. This in-
against the budget. A software project manager is cludes more than the availability of user manuals.
involved in this financial process. This is where Often a transition plan is developed, defining the
he or she gets the wherewithal to obtain the work that has to be done to get the product used
resources to complete the project. The process is by the customers. Larger products may have to
usually unique to the company or organization to be given early to a few potential customers
which the project belongs. (through beta tests or early support programs) so
g. Resource allocation that the transition plan can be tested.
Allocation depends on schedule, competition be- Transition plans may include preparation of spe-
tween projects for resources, use of workstations cial documents on how to get the system up and
versus common computational resources, etc. running; assignment of personnel to support the
This must be determined in advance and included installation of the product and the training of
in the project plan. these installers; teaching of classes for the users
or the trainers of the users; or documentation of
h. Organizational considerations (teams, the product that has to be included in contract
hierarchies, etc.) software so that the customer can maintain it. It
may even include the development of a sales plan
The way the development organization is set up for marketing the product.
has an effect on the cost estimates. See
Managing the Team below, for details on ap- Pressman discusses at length the issues associated
proaches to organization. with the introduction of new technology in
III. Managing the Project
Software project managers need to know more
than just software development. In order to make 1. Managing the Task
intelligent decisions about the software product,
they must understand the technology of the The objective of process management is to assure
domain in which the software is to be used. that the project is completed on time, within budget,
Without this knowledge, they are dependent upon and with high quality.
the knowledge of someone else who may not a. Project control
have the larger context needed to manage the
project. (i) Managing to the plan
(1) Tracking events
j. Human factors and usability
Tracking can be accomplished through
User interfaces and their associated human factors regularly scheduled status review meetings
are so important to the success of a software prod- and through status reports at intervals less
uct that the software project manager should be than the scheduled completion time of work
aware of their significance and be prepared to ask packages.
the appropriate questions of his or her develop-
ment team. [Radice88]. See User Interface De- (2) Tracking requirements
Tracking requirements are sometimes re-
k. Tools and environments quired by contract. In any case, it is advis-
able to develop a method for tracking re-
Tools and environments are essential to the soft- quirements in the work products when the
ware manager on a limited budget. In the ’50s project is large and subject to requirements
and ’60s, language processors, editors, operating changes. See Software Requirements
systems, and generators were the tools of concern. [Brackett88].
In the ’70s, it was terminals as input devices, in-
spections, document and network analyzers. In (ii) Reviews
the ’80s, more modern tools are of concern:
process-oriented tools such as configuration man- Reviews are an important part of a formal qual-
agers, syntax-directed editors, workstations, and ity assurance process. See The Software Tech-
nical Review Process [Collofello88b] for more
SEI-CM-21-1.0 Draft For Public Review 9
Software Project Management
(iii) Feedback and reporting mechanisms (vii) Readjusting goals and milestones
Generating feedback from tracking and review Information gained from status meetings can
activities is essential, otherwise the information be assessed and then used to adjust schedules
useful to the manager cannot be obtained. This and milestones. These should be reflected in
is further discussed in [Brooks75], chapters 6, the planning documents, such as PERT/Gantt
7, and 14. Information on project audits is in charts and other scheduling materials, for
(iv) Configuration management b. Risk management
Managers should be aware of the methods for The manager has to act on the results and data
implementing software configuration manage- provided by the risk management activities estab-
ment. See Software Configuration Manage- lished during the planning process, such as
ment [Tomayko87a]. prototyping, performance modeling, reviews, etc.
(v) Quality control and quality assurance c. Testing phases
Software quality assurance is defined in the The testing stages in software development need
IEEE Standard for Software Quality Assurance special attention. Delays at this time in the devel-
Plans [IEEE84] and again in IEEE Standard opment cycle may cause delays in the delivery of
Glossary of Software Engineering Terminology the product or may negatively effect the reputa-
[IEEE83]. Under these definitions, SQA is a tion of the development team. See Introduction
“planned and systematic pattern of all actions to Software Verification and Validation [Collo-
necessary to provide adequate confidence that fello88a] for more details on testing and error
the item or product conforms to established prevention techniques. For formal techniques to
technical requirements.” prevent errors, see Formal Verification of
There are a number of interpretations of what
should be included under the umbrella of qual- d. Formalized support activities
ity assurance. In some organizations, QA
manifests itself as an independent organization Freeman proposes that “a formal support activity
that audits the work of the development organi- is an essential part of a modern SDS” (software
zation more in the manner that quality control development system) [Freeman87]. This is true
is used in manufacturing. This may include the not only for modern development tools but for all
running of tests of the software products development tools. Brooks refers to the persons
[Fairley85]. responsible for support as the “language lawyer”
and the “toolsmith” in his surgical team concept
In other organizations, QA takes on all activi- [Brooks75]. It is essential that the development
ties that can effect the quality of the product, organization have access to the support of experts
including configuration management and re- who know the tools well. It is not a luxury. It
views. Brad Brown’s curriculum module can be as simple as assigning the responsibility
Assurance of Software Quality [Brown87] takes for the tool to one of the developers, as happens
this approach. The software project manager in many small organizations, or having the tool
should be aware that both definitions exist. developers provide constantly available support
[Buckley84] is an introduction to the subject. of the developers’ use of the tools, as happens in
[Basili87] discusses the “cleanroom” approach many large organizations.
to emphasize quality in software development.
There is massive evidence that inadequate tool
(vi) Managing change support costs valuable time and increases the er-
rors in the software. Any first-line manager or
One experienced software manager, Richard team leader can attest to the time lost from im-
Parten, said when he was at NASA that proper support of the tools. Freeman claims that
“project management is change management.” 10 percent of the project’s resources devoted to
Both changes to the software product this “support activity is not uncommon in sophis-
[Harvey86] and to the development environ- ticated organizations that work on complex
ment (including personnel) must be expected systems.”
and planned for. If these changes occur with-
out being planned for, chaos will result and 2. Managing the Team
failure to meet schedules will be ensured. Any
of Bersoff’s writings are useful background Effective people management in software projects
[Bersoff84, Bersoff80]. takes into account the differences in personality
among the various members of the team and how
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Software Project Management
their roles affect their personalities. [Metzger87] is person that the new project is right for his or her
an easy-to-read source of material that does not go career, and negotiate a starting date. Much of this
too deeply into the topic for students. DeMarco and is done in parallel for several candidates for each
Lister have also written about software teams and position. These newly recruited people are able
projects [DeMarco87]. to become productive more quickly than those
hired from outside the organization—they know
a. Team organizations the systems and standards used by the organiza-
There are many types of team organizations. tion.
Mills proposes the use of chief programmer teams The problem with internal recruiting is that often
[Mills83]. Brooks proposes surgical teams in the new manager does not have complete control
[Brooks75], chapters 3 and 7. Weinberg promotes over the quality of the individuals recruited. Suc-
the egoless approach [Weinberg84], which is cessful internal recruiting depends on the priority
similar to the democratic approach described by of the project, the availability of good people, his
Brooks. Stuckenbruck describes a matrix organi- or her negotiating ability, and the support given
zation [Stuckenbruck81]. Mantei discusses the ef- by upper management.
fects of various team structures [Mantei81]. Weis-
bord presents an approach to designing and man- Recruiting from outside the organization is more
aging work teams that promotes greater produc- difficult. First, it is necessary to do something to
tivity [Weisbord88]. get people to apply for the job, such as advertise,
hire a recruiter, etc. The manager has to screen
b. Recruiting and staffing—picking the right applicants, bring the more promising ones in for
people an interview, negotiate salary, give an offer to the
Frequently part of the software project manager’s ones selected, start over when turned down, and
job is to get the proper people together to do the provide additional training to the ones who ac-
project. This may mean borrowing the people cept. All this has to be accomplished before the
from another organization as is done in matrix new person is able to be productive on the new
organizations. But more often it means recruiting project. The result is that the manager takes
the people needed from either inside or outside longer to staff up but has more control over the
the organization. quality of the individuals recruited. Success de-
pends on how particular or anxious he or she is in
Recruiting from inside the organization occurs filling the open positions. The manager trades off
when new work is taken on to use the people who availability of high-quality people against project
become available as other projects near comple- schedules and has to live with the consequences.
tion. As projects complete, they begin to staff
down and make their people available. It is the No matter how the staff is recruited, the new
new project manager’s challenge to find the manager seldom has the ideal staff for the job.
proper people to do the new project and convince He or she needs to find the strengths and
the individuals that this project is the right place weaknesses of the new people and adapt the as-
for them. signments to the people. Occasionally, a new
person will be too weak in the area assigned and
The process is not unlike recruiting new employ- this will not be evident until the first or second
ees. However, the manager knows the planned review. Often the new person is a surprise and is
availability of people, not by individuals but by better than was expected. The manager has to be
numbers. He or she also knows what projects prepared to readjust assignments in the middle of
will be reducing staff. It is the new project the project in order to get the best out of his or her
manager’s job to negotiate with the existing proj- staff.
ect managers. Since it is the objective of the new
project to staff with only the best people and the c. Technical leadership
objective of the existing project manager to place The attitudes of the members of the development
the poorer people first (he or she wants to keep team are an influencing factor in their perfor-
the more productive), there is a conflict of interest mance from both a quality and productivity point
between the two. Much negotiation and com- of view. The motivation of individual team mem-
promise is required to reach agreement. Appeals bers is easily influenced both positively and nega-
to higher authority are frequently necessary. Ne- tively by the manager [Humphrey87].
gotiation is usually easier in large organizations
than in small ones, as there are more recruiting See [Humphrey87] and [Weinberg86] for well-
options open to the new project manager. presented discussions of this topic. Some key
points from [Humphrey87] are reproduced here:
Once agreement is reached, the new project man-
ager has to interview the candidate, convince the “The technical leader’s most important role is to
set goals and drive unswerving to meet them.”
SEI-CM-21-1.0 Draft For Public Review 11
Software Project Management
“When one person makes a pact with another and 3. Managing the Context
they both expect it to be kept, that is a commit-
ment. When technical groups must coordinate In addition to the day-to-day, project-to-project task
their efforts to produce a coherent result, and team management concerns, software managers
schedules are needed and must be based on should have knowledge of the following topics re-
mutual agreements or commitments. Unfor- lated to improving their overall skills and their
tunately, people rarely make accurate estimates, organization’s capability.
and something unexpected always comes up to a. Communications skill
delay things. Everyone has to scramble to meet
the schedule. Why does everyone scramble in- The fundamentals of technical communications
stead of accepting the delay and blaming bad should be understood and practiced by the soft-
luck? The difference is the attitude of com- ware project manager in both written and oral
mitment.” form. An Overview of Technical Communication
for the Software Engineer [Glass88] provides
“The two key elements of professionalism are the some general information and a bibliography of
knowledge of what to do and the discipline to do other sources.
it. Technical knowledge is the true mark of the
professional for it sets him above his less learned b. Decision theory
Decision theory can be used to develop optimal
“Respect for the individual rests on an attitude of strategies when the decision maker is faced with
fairness. Each person must be valued as an indi- several alternatives and the uncertainty of future
vidual and treated according to his personal wants events. The software development process is
and needs.” filled with many risk situations where the out-
come is not necessarily obvious. Sometimes the
d. Avoiding obsolescence—training, etc. design of a product is not straightforward.
Usually, the testing outcome is unknown. Occa-
Continual upgrading of skills and background
sionally, alternative approaches are proposed.
knowledge is essential in the quickly changing
The concepts of payoff tables, decision making
field of software development. The responsibility
with uncertainty, decision trees, and expected
is partly the individual’s and partly the
values are a few of the approaches discussed in
chapter 16 of [Anderson 85]. Sometimes it is
The manager is responsible for the training neces- simply that something that has been working
sary to do the current job and for encouraging ceases to work properly. Some solution ap-
activities that will prepare the individual for the proaches look at the problem of determining what
future. The manager needs to provide training is different or what is changed [Kepner65].
events and experiences at the proper time, so the
Management science is a broad discipline that
individuals can accomplish their tasks properly.
deals with approaches to managerial decision
This might simply provide the knowledge of how
making that are based upon the application of sci-
to use the tools or it may be a class on a new
entific methods, many of which are appropriate in
language. The manager also needs to expose the
the software engineering domain. It includes both
individuals to current developments in the field.
quantitative and intuitive approaches.
He or she has to ensure that an up-to-date library
is available with periodicals for the software pro- c. Business management
fession and associated professions. The manager
should encourage access to the advanced technol- Not covered in this module are all of the business
ogy groups in the organization and attendance at management processes normally applicable in
conferences on subjects in the professional’s area general management areas. These are usually ad-
of expertise, or should bring in experts to give dressed by the organization for which the man-
presentations on subjects of interest. ager works as company policy and standards.
The topic of organization theory is covered in
The individual also has considerable responsibil- [Scott76] and [Jackson82].
ity for the prevention of obsolescence. He or she
can join professional societies such as ACM and d. Assessing the organization’s ability to
IEEE. He or she needs to read the journals, perform the process
browse through the library, and be aware of the
Process evaluation is described in [Humphrey88].
current trends in technology being published.
This includes self-assessment of the level of so-
A case study of the need for training and its effec- phistication of a particular organization’s soft-
tiveness is contained in [Cupello88]. ware development capabilities.
12 Draft For Public Review SEI-CM-21-1.0
Software Project Management
e. Probability and statistics
A knowledge of probability and statistics is re-
quired to perform many of the estimating and
scheduling tasks. The mathematician requires
that all data be available before a decision can be
made [Feller68, Walpole85]. For the software
manager who seldom has all of the data, a knowl-
edge of Bayesian statistics is helpful [Berger85,
4. Managing Product Support and Maintenance
Managing maintenance and product support person-
nel is a serious motivational challenge. Also, reduc-
ing the cost of maintenance often requires “reverse
engineering” of missing documents or comments in
code. An interesting reading on this is [Collofello87],
and there are several books on the subject, such as
[Glass81] and [Arthur88].
IV. Evaluating the Project
A project history, which assesses the effectiveness of
the estimates and project plan, is an increasingly im-
portant part of product development, even to the point
of being included in standards (such as the NASA stan-
dard for software development [NASA86b]). It is such
histories that form the core of corporate experience,
making possible increasingly accurate application of
models like COCOMO and function points, and pro-
viding a hedge against turnover of personnel.
SEI-CM-21-1.0 Draft For Public Review 13
Software Project Management
Textbooks Management topics should also be inserted in intro-
ductory software engineering courses. Typically,
There is no single textbook that provides a compre- four weeks of such courses should be devoted to or-
hensive treatment of the topics in this module. ganization models, estimation, management plans,
Therefore, it is recommended that a mix of texts and configuration management, quality assurance, and
journal articles be used to gain sufficient coverage of tracking. Cost accounting can be easily made a part
the issues. Many relevant articles are reprinted in of such courses, as demonstrated in [Tomayko87b].
the IEEE Tutorial on Software Engineering Project
Management [Thayer88]. Some of them can be used
to flesh out either key or ignored topics in texts such
as [Gilb88] or [DeMarco82]. One book that does SEI Video Course
treat most topics is [Humphrey89].
The Software Engineering Institute Video Dissemi-
nation Project offers a complete videotape course on
software project management. It includes lectures
Teaching Techniques by several instructors and topic experts, plus support
materials, including viewgraphs, reading list, ex-
There are at least two approaches to the overall de- ercises, and examinations. For additional informa-
sign of a software project management course. The tion on this course, including its current cost, please
first is sequential topic presentations as found in contact the Technical Project Administrator of the
most course plans. The second is a spiral approach Video Dissemination Project at the SEI.
pioneered at the Wang Institute and described in
The fundamental question is whether to include
some actual project experience during the course.
Spicer did a graduated set of projects: individual
(lasting a week), small (a couple weeks), and Software support for project management can be
medium (several weeks). Other approaches are to provided by automated environments and specific
“farm out” the students to concurrently running soft- tools for scheduling and cost estimation. For ex-
ware engineering project courses as team leaders, so ample, the EPOS environment [EPOS88] provides a
they can obtain on-the-job training of a sort at the set of tools for project management that automatic-
same time the material is being taught in class. ally generates such aids as Gantt charts. Individual
When this course is taught in the context of a grad- tools, such as MacProject II [MacProject89], focus
uate level software engineering program, the on activity networks and resource allocation. A mi-
master’s project requirements will often provide crocomputer implementation of COCOMO devel-
management opportunities, so none are needed in the oped at the Wang Institute, WICOMO, has been
course itself. However, for the immediate future and used successfully as part of the SEI video course
probably indefinitely at schools enrolling significant mentioned above.
numbers of part-time students, the experience of
using tools and writing a project plan will have to
come from within the project management course it-
self. There are again two approaches to this: either
the students individually write a plan based on a re-
quirements document provided by the instructor or
the students are grouped into teams for developing
the plan. Either way, a further decision has to be
made about whether to make sections of the plan due
at intervals or all at once.
14 Draft For Public Review SEI-CM-21-1.0
Software Project Management
Because of the broad scope of this curriculum mod- Further, the high degree of correlation between
ule, it has been necessary to restrict the bibliography “function points” and the eventual “SLOC”
below to references concerned directly with software (source lines of code) of the program, and between
project management. Additional references on re- “function points” and the work-effort required to
lated topics can be found in the bibliographies of develop the code, is demonstrated. The “function
point” measure is thought to be more useful than
other SEI curriculum modules listed in a separate “SLOC” as a prediction of work effort because
bibliography that follows. “function points” are relatively easily estimated
from a statement of basic requirements for a pro-
gram early in the development cycle.
The strong degree of equivalency between “function
Software Project points” and “SLOC” shown in the paper suggests a
Management References two-step work-effort validation procedure, first
using “function points” to estimate “SLOC,” and
then using “SLOC” to estimate the work-effort.
Abdel-Hamid86 This approach would provide validation of appli-
Abdel-Hamid, Tarek K., and Stuart E. Madnick. cation development work plans and work-effort es-
“Impact of Schedule Estimation on Software Project timates early in the development cycle. The ap-
Behavior.” IEEE Software 3, 4 (July 1986), 70-75. proach would also more effectively use the existing
base of knowledge on producing “SLOC” until a
The thesis of this paper is that different estimates similar base is developed for “function points.”
create different projects. Schedule estimates have
impact on the progress of a project, in that they This paper assumes that the reader is familiar with
directly affect staffing, training, and perceived proj- the fundamental theory of “software science”
ect status. Changes in these factors due to the es- measurements and the practice of validating es-
timates (reduction in personnel, shifting percep- timates of work-effort to design and implement soft-
tions, etc.) can backfire. ware applications (programs). If not, a review of
- is suggested.
Albrecht83 This paper is one of the early presentations of the
Albrecht, Allan J., and John E. Gaffney, Jr. “function points” method of cost estimation criti-
“Software Function, Source Lines of Code, and De- cally evaluated in [Kemerer87].
velopment Effort Prediction: A Software Science
Validation.” IEEE Trans. Software Eng. SE-9, 6 Anderson85
(Nov. 1983), 639-648. Anderson, D. R., D. J. Sweeney, and T. A. Williams.
An Introduction to Management Science, 4th Ed. St.
Abstract: One of the most important problems
faced by software developers and users is the
Paul: West Publishing Company, 1985.
prediction of the size of a programming system and An excellent text used by many management sci-
its development effort. As an alternative to “size,” ence courses dealing with the “quantitative ap-
one might deal with a measure of the “function” proaches to decision making.”
that the software is to perform. Albrecht  has
developed a methodology to estimate the amount of
the “function” the software is to perform, in terms Arthur88
of the data it is to use (absorb) and to generate Arthur, Lowell Jay. Software Evolution. New York:
(produce). The “function” is quantified as John Wiley and Sons, 1988.
“function points,” essentially, a weighted sum of
This book is a detailed survey of techniques for
the numbers of “inputs,” “outputs,” “master files,”
software maintenance activities. Its final chapter
and “inquiries” provided to, or generated by, the
treats “managing for maintenance,” and is good
software. This paper demonstrates the equivalence
background reading for the topic when it is taught
between Albrecht’s external input/output data flow
in a software project management course.
representation of a program (the “function points”
metric) and Halstead’s  “software science” or
“software linguistics” model of a program as well Basili80
as the “soft content” variation of Halstead’s model Basili, Victor R. “Resource Models.” In Tutorial on
suggested by Gaffney . Models and Metrics for Software Management and
SEI-CM-21-1.0 Draft For Public Review 15
Software Project Management
Engineering, Victor R. Basili, ed. New York: IEEE Behrens83
Computer Society Press, 1980, 4-9. Behrens, Charles A. “Measuring the Productivity of
Describes the evolution of software development Computer Systems Development Activities with
resource models. It divides the models into static, Function Points.” IEEE Trans. Software Eng. SE-9,
single-variable models; static, multivariable models; 6 (Nov. 1983), 648-652.
dynamic, multivariable models; and single-variable, Abstract: The function point method of measuring
theoretical models. The papers documenting the application development productivity developed by
various models cited are included in the tutorial. Albrecht is reviewed and a productivity improve-
ment measure introduced. The measurement meth-
Basili87 odology is then applied to 24 development projects.
Basili, Victor R., Richard W. Selby, and F. Terry Size, environment, and language effects on produc-
Baker. “Cleanroom Software Development: An Em- tivity are examined. The concept of a productivity
pirical Evaluation.” IEEE Trans. Software Eng. index which removes size effects is defined and an
analysis of the statistical significance of results is
SE-13, 9 (Sept. 1987), 1027-1037.
Abstract: The Cleanroom software development
This paper is a report of an application of the meth-
approach is intended to produce highly reliable
od described in [Albrecht83].
software by integrating formal methods for specifi-
cation and design, nonexecution-based program de-
velopment, and statistically based independent test- Berger85
ing. In an empirical study, 15 three-person teams Berger, J. O. Statistical Decision Theory and
developed versions of the same software system Bayesian Analysis, 2nd Ed. New York: Springer-
(800-2300 source lines); ten teams applied Clean- Verlag, 1985.
room, while five applied a more traditional ap-
proach. This analysis characterizes the effect of Covers the foundations and concepts of statistical
Cleanroom on the delivered product, the software decision theory, including situations where data are
development process, and the developers. incomplete. This book approaches statistics from
the business perspective where not all of the data
The major results of this study are the following. 1) are available. It introduces the probability of ac-
Most of the developers were able to apply the tech-
curacy of the data into the statistical calculations,
niques of Cleanroom effectively (six of the ten
statistics based on probable accuracy of the data
Cleanroom teams delivered at least 91 percent of
(Bayesian), is not appreciated by the mathematical
the required system functions). 2) The Cleanroom
approach to statistics.
teams’ products met system requirements more
completely and had a higher percentage of success-
ful operationally generated test cases. 3) The Bernstein81
source code developed using Cleanroom had more Bernstein, L. “Software Project Management
comments and less dense control-flow complexity. Audits.” J. Syst. and Software 2, 4 (Dec. 1981),
4) The more successful Cleanroom developers mod- 281-287.
ified their use of the implementation language; they
used more procedure calls and IF statements, used Abstract: This paper shows how project audits can
fewer CASE and WHILE statements, and had a be used to uncover project strengths and
lower frequency of variable reuse (average number weaknesses. Three audits are described and find-
of occurrences per variable). 5) All ten Cleanroom ings of the audit teams are summarized. Audits
teams made all of their scheduled intermediate helped identify organizational problems, lacking
product deliveries, while only two of the five non- management discipline, and software testing ap-
Cleanroom teams did. 6) Although 86 percent of proaches useful to other projects. The issue of
the Cleanroom developers indicated that they product sales versus disciplined project manage-
missed the satisfaction of program execution to ment was faced in all three audits. How this issue
some extent, this had no relation to the product was handled is discussed and related to the success
quality measures of implementation completeness or lack of it for each project.
and successful operational tests. 7) Eighty-one per-
This paper illustrates one method of status evalu-
cent of the Cleanroom developers said that they
would use the approach again.
This paper can be used to illustrate quality-based Bersoff80
life cycles. Bersoff, E. H., V. D. Henderson, and S. G. Siegel.
Software Configuration Management. Englewood
Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall, 1980.
16 Draft For Public Review SEI-CM-21-1.0
Software Project Management
This book contains the most complete description of field of software cost estimation, including the
software configuration management available. It major estimation techniques available, the state of
provides a fairly complete rationale for what to do the art in algorithmic cost models, and the out-
and why. The authors have their own conceptual standing research issues in software cost estima-
breakdown of the subject that does not map one-for- tion.
one onto the organization of this module. The book
also does not clearly explain how to perform config- This is a short summary of the thesis of [Boehm81].
uration management tasks.
Bersoff84 Boehm, Barry W., Terence E. Gray, and Thomas
Bersoff, Edward H. “Elements of Software Configu- Seewaldt. “Prototyping Versus Specifying: A Mul-
ration Management.” IEEE Trans. Software Eng. tiproject Experiment.” IEEE Trans. Software Eng.
SE-10, 1 (Jan. 1984), 79-87. SE-10, 3 (May 1984), 290-302.
Abstract: Software configuration management Abstract: In this experiment, seven software teams
(SCM) is one of the disciplines of the 1980’s which developed versions of the same small-size (2000-
grew in response to the many failures of the soft- 4000 source instruction) application software prod-
ware industry throughout the 1970’s. Over the last uct. Four teams used the Specifying approach.
ten years, computers have been applied to the solu- Three teams used the Prototyping approach.
tion of so many complex problems that our ability to The main results of the experiment were the follow-
manage these applications has all too frequently ing.
failed. This has resulted in the development of a 1) Prototyping yielded products with roughly
series of “new” disciplines intended to help control equivalent performance, but with about 40
the software process. percent less code and 45 percent less ef-
This paper will focus on the discipline of SCM by fort.
first placing it in its proper context with respect to 2) The prototyped products rated somewhat
the rest of the software development process, as lower on functionality and robustness, but
well as to the goals of that process. It will examine higher on ease of use and ease of learning.
the constituent components of SCM, dwelling at
3) Specifying produced more coherent de-
some length on one of those components, configu-
signs and software that was easier to inte-
ration control. It will conclude with a look at what
the 1980’s might have in store.
The paper presents the experimental data support-
This paper is good background reading for a lecture ing these and a number of additional conclusions.
This paper provides an example of an alternative
Boehm81 development cycle.
Boehm, Barry W. Software Engineering Economics.
Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall, 1981. Boehm87
Boehm, Barry W. “Improving Software Productiv-
This book must be read by every teacher or poten- ity.” Computer 20, 9 (Sept. 1987), 43-57.
tial teacher of project management. Since economic
matters are intricately involved in most aspects of This article is an excellent short summary of the
software project management, the bulk of this book realistic factors involved in increasing the produc-
is usable in a course on that subject. Chapters 1-3 tivity of software developers. Boehm’s explicit
and 33 should be read first, followed by 4-9. These belief is that the quality of management is the most
chapters provide basic background knowledge es- important factor in the success of a project. An
sential to every project management teacher. extensive selected bibliography by productivity fac-
tor (“getting the best from people,” “eliminating
Boehm84a rework,” etc.) is included.
Boehm, Barry W. “Software Engineering Econom-
ics.” IEEE Trans. Software Eng. SE-10, 1 (Jan. Boehm88
1984), 4-21. Boehm, Barry W. “A Spiral Model of Software De-
velopment and Enhancement.” Computer 21, 5 (May
Abstract: This paper summarizes the current state 1988), 61-72.
of the art and recent trends in software engineering
economics. It provides an overview of economic Yet another example of a risk-reduction life cycle.
analysis techniques and their applicability to soft-
ware engineering and management. It surveys the
SEI-CM-21-1.0 Draft For Public Review 17
Software Project Management
Branstad84 ing functions geared to maintaining delivered soft-
Branstad, Martha, and Patricia B. Powell. “Software ware are described. The suggested software man-
Engineering Project Standards.” IEEE Trans. Soft- agement practices result from the experience of a
small (approximately 100 employees) software en-
ware Eng. SE-10, 1 (Jan. 1984), 73-78.
gineering company that develops and maintains
Abstract: Software Engineering Project Standards computer systems supporting real-time interactive
(SEPS) and their importance are presented in this commercial, industrial, and military applications.
paper by looking at standards in general, then
progressively narrowing the view to software stan- This paper can be used as an illustration of alter-
dards, to software engineering standards, and native quality assurance techniques.
finally to SEPS. After defining SEPS, issues associ-
ated with the selection, support, and use of SEPS Buckley84
are examined and trends are discussed. A brief Buckley, Fletcher J., and Robert Poston. “Software
overview of existing software engineering standards Quality Assurance.” IEEE Trans. Software Eng.
is presented as the Appendix. SE-10, 1 (Jan. 1984), 36-41.
This paper is useful as an overview if no specific Abstract: This paper describes the status of soft-
standard is used in class. ware quality assurance as a relatively new and
autonomous field. The history of its development
Brooks75 from hardware quality assurance programs is dis-
Brooks, Frederick. The Mythical Man-Month: Es- cussed, current methods are reviewed, and future
says on Software Engineering. Reading, Mass.: directions are indicated.
Addison-Wesley, 1975. The book was “reprinted This paper provides useful information for introduc-
with corrections” in January 1982. ing quality assurance.
Brooks wrote a true classic in the field of software
engineering. Most of the text can be mined for Cave78
management advice, as it is a “lessons learned” doc- Cave, William C., and Alan B. Salisbury.
ument of Brooks’s career with IBM. “Controlling the Software Life Cycle—The Project
Management Task.” IEEE Trans. Software Eng.
Brooks87 SE-4, 4 (July 1978), 326-334.
Brooks, Frederick P., Jr. “No Silver Bullet: Essence Abstract: This paper describes project manage-
and Accidents of Software Engineering.” Computer ment methods used for controlling the life cycle of
24, 4 (April 1987), 10-19. large-scale software systems deployed in multiple
installations over a wide geographic area. A set of
In this article Brooks discusses why software isn’t
management milestones is offered along with re-
improving by leaps and bounds like hardware, why
quirements and techniques for establishing and
it never will, and what it takes to get the most out of
maintaining control of the project. In particular, a
software development. quantitative measure of software quality is pro-
posed based upon functional value, availability, and
Bryan84 maintenance costs. Conclusions drawn are based
Bryan, William, and Stanley Siegel. “Making Soft- on the study of several cases and are generally ap-
ware Visible, Operational, and Maintainable in a plicable to both commercial and military systems.
Small Project Environment.” IEEE Trans. Software This paper is a useful overview of the tools, tech-
Eng. SE-10, 1 (Jan. 1984), 59-67. niques, and approaches to managing software devel-
Abstract: Practical suggestions are presented for opment.
effectively managing software development in
small-project environments (i.e., no more than sev- Chisum86
eral million dollars per year). The suggestions are Chisum, Donald S. “The Patentability of Algo-
based on an approach to product development rithms.” U. of Pittsburgh Law Review 47, 4 (Sum-
using a product assurance group that is independ- mer 1986), 959-1022.
ent from the development group. Within this check-
and-balance management/development/product as- Abstract: In this Article, the author argues that
surance structure, a design review process is de- algorithms, which are sets of specific rules for solv-
scribed that effects an orderly transition from cus- ing a mathematical or other type of problem and
tomer needs statement to software code. The testing which are highly useful as the backbones of com-
activity that follows this process is then explained. puter programs, should be the subject of patent pro-
Finally, the activities of a change control body tection if the patent law standards of novelty and
(called a configuration control board) and support- unobviousness are met. After discussing case law
18 Draft For Public Review SEI-CM-21-1.0
Software Project Management
developments prior to 1972, the author analyzes metrics and models usable in software engineering
and criticizes the Supreme Court decision in available. For project management, chapters 1, 2, 5,
Gottschalk v. Benson, which held that mathematical 6, 7, and 8 are most useful, but every project man-
algorithms were unpatentable per se as laws of na- ager and instructor will need this book in his or her
ture or mere ideas. He argues that the Benson rule library.
is unsupported by statute or case law authority or
by policy considerations. He then analyzes the Cooper78
post-Benson Supreme Court decisions in Parker v.
Flook, which extended Benson, and Diamond v. Cooper, John D. “Corporate Level Software Man-
Diehr, which restricted it, and four 1982 decisions agement.” IEEE Trans. Software Eng. SE-4, 4 (July
by the Court of Customs and Patent Appeals. He 1978), 319.
shows that theses cases fail to provide clear Abstract: Software management is considered from
guidance on what types of algorithms may be the corporate headquarters viewpoint. This per-
patented as processes or methods. He contends that spective encompasses all facets of management, but
Benson is inconsistent in philosophy with the specifically dealt with are those that are brought to
Supreme Court’s 1980 decision in Diamond v. bear on software management obstacles and ways
Chakrabarty, which held that genetically altered to cope with them are presented. Standardization is
microorganisms may be patented and stressed that presented as the most effective management device
new technological developments covered by the available at the corporate level for enhancing the
general terms of the patent statute should be in- overall software posture. Corporate management
cluded in the patent system unless specifically ex- actions available for favorably influencing the qual-
cluded by Congress. The author concludes that ity of software over its life cycle and research initia-
patent protection for algorithms may be needed to tives are described.
provide incentives for innovation in software devel-
opment as a supplement to copyright and trade This is a much needed article addressing software
secret protection of computer programs since the management from the “other side” of the software
latter two forms of protection do not protect against development environment. Problems unique to
unauthorized copying of publicly-disclosed ideas. A software management are presented.
“computer scientist’s response” on the issue of
patentability and algorithms, by Professor Allen Cooper84
Newell of Carnegie Mellon University, follows this
Article. Cooper, Jack. “Software Development Management
Planning.” IEEE Trans. Software Eng. SE-10, 1
This paper discusses the legal history of software, (Jan. 1984), 22-26.
as well as the problems encountered in categorizing
software for legal protection purposes. Abstract: The lack of comprehensive planning pri-
or to the initiation of a software development proj-
ect is a very pervasive failing. This paper walks
Clark38 through a sample software development plan dis-
Clark, W. The Gantt Chart. London: Sir Isaac Pit- cussing the various areas that a software develop-
man & Sons, 1938. ment manager should address in preparing his
project’s plan. Various considerations and sugges-
This book describes the various uses of bar charts
tions are presented for each of the management
following the ideas of Henry Gantt.
subject areas. How the user/customer can use the
developer’s plan to aid in monitoring of his
Collofello87 software’s evolution is also presented. Detailed
Collofello, James S., and Jeffrey J. Buck. “Software planning of a software development project is nec-
Quality Assurance for Maintenance.” IEEE Software essary to the successful completion of the project.
4, 9 (Sept. 1987), 46-51. The step-by-step analysis of a sample software de-
Collofello and Buck provide some insight on man- velopment plan in this paper forces many details to
aging a project for prevention of software problems, light that are ignored by other authors.
as well as correction of problems through software
quality assurance. Cori85
Cori, Kent A. “Fundamentals of Master Scheduling
Conte86 for the Project Manager.” Project Management
Conte, S. D., H. E. Dunsmore, and V. Y. Shen. J. 16, 2 (June 1985), 78-89.
Software Engineering Metrics and Models. Menlo
This article outlines the functions and responsibil-
Park, Calif.: Benjamin/Cummings, 1986. ities of the project manager and surveys five differ-
This is the single most complete treatment of ent scheduling techniques. The material on miles-
tones is particularly useful.
SEI-CM-21-1.0 Draft For Public Review 19
Software Project Management
Cottrell, Paul, and James Maron. “Professional Cyert, R. M. Bayesian Analysis and Uncertainty in
Liability for Computer Design.” The Computer Economic Theory. Totowa, N.J.: Rowman & Lit-
Lawyer 3, 8 (Aug. 1986), 14-20. tlefield, 1987.
This is a discussion of legal liability and responsi- Looks at statistical methods used in economics
bility for the computer industry. where data are incomplete.
Crawford, Stewart G., and M. Hosein Fallah. Dart, Susan A., Robert J. Ellison, Peter H. Feiler,
“Software Development Process Audits—A General and Nico Habermann. “Software Development En-
Procedure.” Proc. 8th Intl. Conf. on Software vironments.” Computer 20, 11 (Nov. 1987), 18-28.
Engineering. Washington, D.C.: IEEE Computer
This taxonomy of software development environ-
Society Press, 1985, 137-141. ments serves as useful reading for discussions of
Abstract: To assist development organizations in resource acquisition, allocation, and training.
improving software quality and productivity, the
AT&T Bell Laboratories Quality Assurance Center DeMarco82
created a Design Quality Group to independently DeMarco, Tom. Controlling Software Projects. New
evaluate the software development processes and York: Yourdon Press, 1982.
associated development products of our AT&T proj-
ects. These software development process audits This book concentrates heavily on metrics and the
examine software engineering techniques and tools examination of quality factors as the basis for man-
in practice, as they fit into the overall development agement of software projects. Essentially, DeMarco
environment. Our strategy behind these audits is to makes the case that you cannot control what you
assemble a team which, with the involvement of the cannot measure. Useful for finding ways to inte-
developers and their managers, will: characterize grate metrics into an organization.
the existing development process; identify project
strengths and areas for improvements; and recom-
mend possible improvements. This paper details the
general approach behind this strategy. DeMarco, Tom and Timothy Lister. Peopleware:
Productive Projects and Teams. New York: Dorset
This is a good example for discussing the pros and House, 1987.
cons of having an external quality assurance group.
A collection of essays on managing projects and the
people who carry them out by a pair of authors with
substantial project management and consulting ex-
Cupello, James M., and David J. Mishelevich. perience. The essays challenge conventional man-
“Managing Prototype Knowledge/Expert System agement wisdom and emphasize how creating the
Projects.” Comm. ACM 31, 5 (May 1988), 534-541. right work environment can increase productivity.
Fundamental issues of technology transfer, training,
problem selection, staffing, corporate politics, and Deming86
more, are explored. Deming, W. Edwards. Out of the Crisis. Cambridge,
Mass.: MIT Center for Advanced Engineering
Curtis88 Study, 1986.
Curtis, Bill, Herb Krasner, and Neil Iscoe. “A Field Deming advocates the transformation of American
Study of the Software Design Process for Large management to focus on increasing quality and
Systems.” Comm. ACM 31, 11 (Nov. 1988), productivity within organizations. He offers 14
1268-1287. guiding principles for achieving this transformation,
and he identifies the “deadly diseases” and
A rare study of how software development really
obstacles that currently are barriers to doing so.
takes place. The authors interviewed personnel
Deming’s principles provided the framework for the
from 17 large software projects. Using a layered
development of postwar Japanese industry, and he
behavioral model, they analyze the impact on qual-
is widely credited with guiding its tremendous suc-
ity and productivity of shifting requirements, inade-
quate domain knowledge, and communication prob-
20 Draft For Public Review SEI-CM-21-1.0
Software Project Management
DoD88 management, etc.). One of the best parts of this
DoD. Military Standard for Defense System Soft- guide is the conceptual introduction to the software
ware Development. DOD-STD-2167A, U. S. De- development process and the relation of the project
partment of Defense, Washington, D.C., 29 February plan to it.
Due to its completeness and maturity as the succes- Feller, W. An Introduction to Probability Theory
sor to military standards of the preceding two and Its Applications, 3rd Ed. New York: John
decades, this is one of the best available examples
to use when discussing standards.
This book is used to teach probability and statistics
EPOS88 using a mathematical approach.
EPOS. SPS, Inc., New York, 1988.
A comprehensive software engineering environment
for workstations that includes project management
Ferrari, D. Computer Systems Performance Evalu-
tools. ation. Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall, 1978.
This book looks at performance evaluation using
Evans83 measurement, simulation, and analytic techniques.
Evans, M. W., P. H. Piazza, and J. B. Dolkas. It then applies these to solve problems characteristic
Principles of Productive Software Management. of methodology selection, design alternatives, and
New York: John Wiley, 1983. product improvement.
This book describes a methodology for software Freeman87
management and the associated control techniques Freeman, Peter. Software Perspectives: The System
for the entire development process, as practiced by
the authors at Ford Aerospace and Communications
is the Message. Reading, Mass.: Addison-Wesley,
Corporation and several other companies. 1987.
This book is too general to be a single text for soft-
Fagan76 ware project management courses. However, it
Fagan, M. “Design and Code Inspections to Reduce does emphasize the importance of environments and
Errors in Program Development.” IBM Systems preparing for transition of a product.
J. 15, 3 (1976), 182-211.
A “must read” classic paper that introduces the Friedman, Marc S., and Mary J. Hildebrand.
whole concept of software inspections. Sample
forms, checklists, and experimental data from IBM
“Computer Litigation: A Buyer’s Theories of
are also presented. Liability.” The Computer Lawyer 4, 12 (Dec. 1987),
Fairley85 This article provides useful material for a discussion
Fairley, Richard E. Software Engineering Concepts. of software users’ rights and responsibilities.
New York: McGraw-Hill, 1985.
Of the plethora of introductory texts on software
engineering, Fairley’s has, arguably, the best set of Gilb, Tom. Principles of Software Engineering
references. His text is compact, living up to the title Management. Reading, Mass.: Addison-Wesley,
in that only “concepts” are presented; but extensive 1988.
references are given for each topic. The first three Gilb has written a nearly complete discussion of
chapters are most useful in the management area. project management from a unique viewpoint.
Fairley, Richard E. “A Guide to Preparing Software Glass, Robert L., and Ronald A. Noiseux. Software
Project Management Plans.” In Tutorial: Software Maintenance Guidebook. Englewood Cliffs, N.J.:
Engineering Project Management, Richard Prentice-Hall, 1981.
H. Thayer, ed. Washington, D.C.: IEEE Computer
Society Press, 1988, 257-264. This book is useful for background on managing
This is written in the spirit of the various IEEE stan-
dards for plans (quality assurance, configuration
SEI-CM-21-1.0 Draft For Public Review 21
Software Project Management
Gourd, Roger S. “Self-Assessment Procedure X: A Humphrey, Watts S. Managing for Innovation:
Self-Assessment Procedure Dealing with Software Leading Technical People. Englewood Cliffs, N.J.:
Project Management.” Comm. ACM 25, 12 (Dec. Prentice-Hall, 1987.
If there is a Mythical Man-Month for managers, this
Self-assessments are a familiar but irregular feature is probably it. Humphrey has collected his and his
of the Communications of the ACM. This one is IBM colleagues’ collective experiences in leading
weaker than some, being most useful for beginners technical individuals and teams into this compact,
to the subject, helping to identify which buzzword readable, and immediately useful book. It is best to
categories are most in need of development. read a chapter at a time, with some reflection be-
tween segments—there is just too much in a typical
Harvey86 chapter to absorb it adequately in conjunction with
Harvey, Katherine E. Summary of the SEI Workshop
on Software Configuration Management. CMU/
SEI-86-TR-5, Software Engineering Institute, Pitts- Humphrey88
burgh, Pa., Dec. 1986. Humphrey, Watts S. “Characterizing the Software
Process: A Maturity Framework.” IEEE Software 5,
This is good reference material for presenting basic 3 (March 1988), 73-79.
concepts on configuration management.
Humphrey presents a framework for the evolution
of the software development process.
Holmes, Robert A. “Application of Article Two of
the Uniform Commercial Code to Computer System Humphrey89
Acquisitions.” Rutgers Computer and Technology Humphrey, Watts S. Managing the Software
Law J. 9, 1 ( 1982), 1-26. Process. Reading, Mass.: Addison-Wesley, 1989.
This article address such issues as product misrepre- A genuine handbook for managers. It is very de-
sentation, purchasing of systems, warranties, and tailed and complete.
Howes84 Issue on Quality and Productivity. G. M. Gershon,
Howes, Norman R. “Managing Software Develop- ed. IBM Systems J. 24, 2 (1985).
ment Projects for Maximum Productivity.” IEEE This issue is devoted to articles concerned with soft-
Trans. Software Eng. SE-10, 1 (Jan. 1984), 27-35. ware quality and productivity. It concentrates pri-
Abstract: In the area of software development, data marily on the development of large systems and
processing management often focuses more on contains measurements of organizations that
coding techniques and system architecture than on “produce several million lines of new and changed
how to manage the development. In recent years, code every year.” It contains articles on program-
“structured programming” and “structured analy- ming process, automation of the development proc-
sis” have received more attention than the tech- ess, software methodologies, defect prevention ap-
niques software managers employ to manage. proaches, software engineering education, and
Moreover, these coding and architectural con- productivity measurements. It contains a lot of
siderations are often advanced as the key to a metrics and analyses of the effectiveness of differ-
smooth running, well managed project. ent approaches.
This paper documents a philosophy for software de-
velopment and the tools used to support it. Those IEEE83
management techniques deal with quantifying such IEEE. IEEE Standard Glossary of Software Engi-
abstract terms as “productivity,” “performance,” neering Terminology. New York: IEEE, 1983.
and “progress,” and with measuring these quanti- ANSI/IEEE Std 729-1983.
ties and applying management controls to maximize
them. The paper also documents the application of IEEE84
these techniques on a major software development IEEE. IEEE Standard for Software Quality As-
surance Plans. New York: IEEE, 1984. ANSI/
Howes suggests a method for “packing” work, and IEEE Std 730-1984.
details the components involved in planning, ex-
ecuting, and evaluating the software development
22 Draft For Public Review SEI-CM-21-1.0
Software Project Management
IEEE87 lines-of-code. It demonstrates the limitations of the
IEEE. IEEE Standard for Software Project Manage- currently available models and introduces a differ-
ment Plans. New York: IEEE, 1987. IEEE Std ent method, function points, which can then be dis-
1058.1-1987. cussed using [Albrecht83].
Jackson, J. H., and C. P. Morgan. Organization The- Kepner, C. H., and B. B. Tregoe. The Rational
ory: A Macro Perspective for Management 2nd Ed. Manager. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1965.
Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall, 1982. A systematic approach to problem solving and deci-
sion making. Stresses techniques useful in deter-
A useful book on organization theories.
mining problem causes.
Jullig, Richard, et al. Knowledge-Based Software
Kerin, R. A., and R. A. Peterson. Strategic Market-
Project Management. Technical Report KES.U.-
ing Problems: Cases and Comments, 4th Ed. Bos-
87.3, Kestrel Institute, Palo Alto, Calif., Nov. 1986.
ton, Mass.: Allyn & Bacon, 1987.
This is a description of the knowledge-based Project
This text contains decision making and management
Management Assistant, developed as an extension
case studies as they apply to marketing.
to the Refine environment. Recent research into
new models of time (time as intervals instead of
absolute elapsed time) are incorporated into the sys- Kotler88
tem. Several interesting concepts are presented, but Kotler, P. Marketing Planning: Analysis, Planning,
the bulk of the material is beyond-leading-edge, Implementation, and Control, 6th Ed. Englewood
thus difficult to apply with present tools. Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall, 1988.
A popular text on marketing.
Kemerer, Chris F. “An Empirical Validation of Soft-
ware Cost Estimation Models.” Comm. ACM 30, 5 Lavenberg83
(May 1987), 416-429. Lavenberg, S. S. Computer Performance Modeling
Handbook. New York: Academic Press, 1983.
Abstract: Practitioners have expressed concern
over their inability to accurately estimate costs as- This book is a collection of papers, most by Laven-
sociated with software development. This concern berg, covering a number of modeling approaches
has become even more pressing as costs associated including analysis, simulation, and validation of
with development continue to increase. As a result, computer performance models. This is considered
considerable research attention is now directed at by some to be the reference manual for modeling
gaining a better understanding of the software- practitioners who concentrate on hardware model-
development process as well as constructing and ing.
evaluating software cost estimating tools. This
paper evaluates four of the most popular algorith- MacProject89
mic models used to estimate software costs (SLIM, MacProject II. Claris Corp., Mountain View, Calif.,
COCOMO, Function Points, and ESTIMACS). 1989.
Data on 15 large completed business data-
processing projects were collected and used to test A substantially enhanced version of MacProject,
the accuracy of the models’ ex post effort estima- project planning software for the Apple Macintosh.
tion. One important result was that Albrecht’s MacProject II provides a variety of tools for plan-
Function Points effort estimation model was vali- ning projects and tracking their progress, including
dated by the independent data provided in this study PERT and Gantt charts, resource histograms, and
. The models not developed in business data- calendars. It features color displays, allows mul-
processing environments showed significant need tiuser data access, and adjustable-size output.
for calibration. As models of the software-
development process, all of the models tested failed
to sufficiently reflect the underlying factors affect-
ing productivity. Further research will be required Mann, Nancy R. “Why it Happened in Japan and
to develop understanding in this area. Not in the U.S.” Chance: New Directions for Statis-
tics and Computing 1, 3 (Summer 1988), 8-15.
This article is useful to have students read after
presenting cost estimation models based on source- The story of how W. Edwards Deming’s statistical
quality-control methodology came to be embraced
SEI-CM-21-1.0 Draft For Public Review 23
Software Project Management
in Japan, after it failed to take hold in the U.S. The tains an annotated outline of the key documents pro-
crucial factor, Mann asserts, was the buy-in of Japa- duced at each step. This book serves as a good
nese management. The competitive advantage this introduction to the process of software engineering
gave Japanese industry should not be lost on in general. However, it is quite spare and should be
American software developers. used in conjunction with [Metzger87].
Mantei, M. “The Effect of Programming Team Metzger, Phillip W. Managing Programming
Structures on Programming Tasks.” Comm. ACM People: A Personal View. Englewood Cliffs, N.J.:
24, 3 (March 1981), 106-113. Prentice-Hall, 1987.
Summary: The literature recognizes two group Metzger concentrates on the most important aspect
structures for managing programming projects: of a software project—the people involved in
Baker’s chief programmer team and Weinberg’s making the product. He devotes a chapter to each
egoless team. Although each structure’s success in of the key types of personnel: analyst, designer,
project management can be demonstrated, this suc- programmer, tester, support staff, and also the cus-
cess is clearly dependent on the type of program- tomer. There is a wealth of experience contained in
ming task undertaken. Here, for the purposes of compact spaces, and the art chosen to illustrate key
comparison, a third project organization which lies points outdoes that of The Mythical Man-Month.
between the other two in its communication patterns The sections on the specific people can be matched
and dissemination of decision-making authority is with life cycle phases in [Metzger81].
presented. Recommendations are given for select-
ing one of the three team organizations depending
on the task to be performed.
Mills, Harlan D. Software Productivity. Boston,
This paper discusses the effectiveness of various or- Mass.: Little, Brown, 1983. Reprinted by Dorset
ganization styles in software development. It is in- House in 1988.
cluded in [Thayer88].
A collection of Mills’s papers from the late 1960s to
the early 1970s. It is possible to trace his thinking
McGill84 on programming team organization.
McGill, James P. “The Software Engineering Short-
age: A Third Choice.” IEEE Trans. Software Eng.
SE-10, 1 (Jan. 1984), 42-48.
NASA. Software Management Plan Data Item
Abstract: As interest in the concepts and methods Description. NASA-Sfw-DID-02-ADA, National
of software engineering increases, many companies, Aeronautics and Space Administration, Office of
particularly in aerospace, find it difficult to acquire Safety, Reliability, Maintainability, and Quality As-
software developers with the desired skills. The op- surance, Washington D.C., 1986.
tion of full-time, company-based training is dis-
cussed with suggestions for implementation. Les- This DID outlines what should be in a project plan
sons learned from the actual implementation of and serves as reference material for the discussion
such a program are discussed along with possible on project plan contents.
directions for future evolution.
This article addresses the software crisis, as well as NASA86b
what happens when companies actually get in- NASA. Lessons-Learned Document Data Item
volved with internal training programs. Description. NASA-Sfw-DID-41, National Aero-
nautics and Space Administration, Office of Safety,
Metzger81 Reliability, Maintainability, and Quality Assurance,
Metzger, Phillip W. Managing a Programming Washington D.C., 1986.
Project, 2nd Ed. Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice- The Lessons-Learned Document (LLD) describes
Hall, 1981. the management and/or development of a project
Yet another of the ex-IBM managers that grew up and the experience gained from the execution of the
with the software industry (Brooks and Humphrey project, assesses the project’s strengths and
are two others) puts pen to paper. Metzger has a weaknesses, and evaluates the results.
very engaging, informal style. Part I of this book is
a travelogue through the traditional phases of the Newell86
waterfall life-cycle model, with instructions as to Newell, Allen. “Response: The Models Are Broken,
the role of the manager in each phase. Part II con- the Models Are Broken!” U. of Pittsburgh Law Re-
view 47, 4 (Summer 1986), 1023-1035.
24 Draft For Public Review SEI-CM-21-1.0
Software Project Management
This is insightful reading for discussions on paten- Putnam79a
tability and copyright. Putnam, Lawrence H. and Ann Fitzsimmons.
“Estimating Software Costs, Part I.” Datamation 25,
Pressman87 10 (Sept. 1979), 188-190, 194, 198.
Pressman, Roger S. Software Engineering: A
This and the following two articles present a com-
Practitioner’s Approach, 2nd Ed. New York: posite costing model that considers more factors
McGraw-Hill, 1987. than the lower-level COCOMO models. There is
Good introductory text for software engineering no evaluation of the techniques presented, but the
courses. It contains much material on management. authors appear to have considerable practical savvy.
Pressman, Roger S. Making Software Engineering Putnam, Lawrence H. and Ann Fitzsimmons.
Happen: A Guide for Instituting the Technology. “Estimating Software Costs, Part II.” Datamation
Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall, 1988. 25, 11 (Oct. 1979), 171-172, 176, 178.
The author of a popular software engineering text-
book here addresses the problem of how to intro-
duce software engineering techniques and tools into Putnam, Lawrence H. and Ann Fitzsimmons.
the workplace. In this guidebook for managers, “Estimating Software Costs, Part III.” Datamation
Pressman introduces and discusses the “software 25, 12 (Nov. 1979), 137-138, 140.
engineering implementation life cycle.”
Putnam78 Putnam, L. H., ed. Tutorial: Software Cost Estimat-
Putnam, Lawrence H. “A General Empirical Solu- ing and Life-Cycle Control: Getting the Software
tion to the Macro Software Sizing and Estimating Numbers. New York: IEEE Computer Society
Problem.” IEEE Trans. Software Eng. SE-4, 4 (July Press, 1980.
1978), 345-361. A collection of papers given at COMSAC80, Oc-
Abstract: Application software development has tober 27-31, 1980. Many of the papers are by Put-
been an area of organizational effort that has not nam. His approach to estimating has since been
been amenable to the normal managerial and cost referred to as the Putnam model of cost estimation.
controls. Instances of actual costs of several times
the initial budgeted cost , and a time to initial oper- Radice85
ational capability sometimes twice as long as Radice, R. A., et al. “A Programming Process
planned are more often the case than not. Architecture.” IBM Systems J. 24, 2 (1985), 79-90.
A macromethodology to support management needs
has now been developed that will produce accurate Abstract: The Programming Process Architecture
estimates of manpower, costs, and times to reach is a framework describing required activities for an
critical milestones of software projects. There are operational process that can be used to develop sys-
four parameters in the basic system and these are in tem or application software. The architecture in-
terms managers are comfortable working with—ef- cludes process management tasks, mechanisms for
fort, development time, elapsed time, and a state-of- analysis and development of the process, and prod-
technology parameter. uct quality reviews during the various stages of the
development cycle. It requires explicit entry crite-
The system provides managers sufficient informa- ria, validation, and exit criteria for each task in the
tion to assess the financial risk and investment process, which combined form the “essence” of the
value of a new software development project before architecture. The architecture describes require-
it is undertaken and provides techniques to update ments for a process needing no new invention, but
estimates from the actual data stream once the proj- rather using the best proven methodologies, tech-
ect is underway. Using the technique developed in niques, and tools available today. This paper de-
the paper, adequate analysis for decisions can be scribes the Programming Process Architecture and
made in an hour or two using only a few quick its use, emphasizing the reasons for its develop-
reference tables and a scientific pocket calculator. ment.
This article should be included in readings for stu- This article (and several other articles in the same
dents about estimation techniques and models. issue of this journal) describes an “architecture” for
the automation of the software development proc-
ess. Although, the automation of the architecture
may not have progressed as described here, this arti-
SEI-CM-21-1.0 Draft For Public Review 25
Software Project Management
cle is representative of the type of thinking and re- Scott76
search that was going on at that time in academia Scott, W. G., and T. R. Mitchell. Organization The-
and industry. ory: A Structural and Behavioral Analysis, 3rd Ed.
Homewood, Ill.: Irwin, 1976.
Radice, R. A., and R. W. Philips. Software Engi- Classic approach in organization theory.
neering. Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall,
Shannon, R. E. Systems Simulation: The Art and
An industrial approach to software engineering. Science. Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall,
Sauer, C. H. and Mani K. Chandy. Computer Sys- This book covers the life cycle of system simula-
tion. It goes from systems investigation through
tems Performance Modeling. Englewood Cliffs, validation and analysis. It covers management as-
N.J.: Prentice-Hall, 1981. pects, model translation, planning and design of ex-
This book is an interesting treatise on performance periments. It includes six case studies in simula-
modeling. It covers general principles, Markovian tion.
and other queuing models, approximation tech-
niques, simulation, measurement, and parameter es- Shere88
timation. It contains six modeling case studies and Shere, K. D. Software Engineering and Manage-
discusses the management aspects of modeling proj- ment. Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall, 1988.
This book is intended for the computer professional
Scacchi84 who needs to gain a system-level perspective of
software development. It contains seven chapters
Scacchi, Walt. “Managing Software Engineering on the system development life cycle, including dis-
Projects: A Social Analysis.” IEEE Trans. Software cussions of risk management and cost estimation. It
Eng. SE-10, 1 (Jan. 1984), 49-58. uses a case study to discuss structured design and
Abstract: Managing software engineering projects database design and then addresses such subjects as
requires an ability to comprehend and balance the quality assurance, capacity planning, and reliability.
technological, economic, and social bases through It concludes with a “case study of a systems engi-
which large software systems are developed. It re- neer and integration job.”
quires people who can formulate strategies for de-
veloping systems in the presence of ill-defined re- Spicer83
quirements, new computing technologies, and Spicer, Joseph C. A Spiral Approach to Software En-
recurring dilemmas with existing computing ar- gineering Project Management Education. Techni-
rangements. This necessarily assumes skill in ac- cal Report TR-83-05, School of Information Tech-
quiring adequate computing resources, controlling
projects, coordinating development schedules, and nology, Wang Institute of Graduate Studies,
employing and directing competent staff. It also Tyngsboro, Mass., Dec. 1983.
requires people who can organize the process for Abstract: This paper describes the experiences of
developing and evolving software products with lo- an instructor, experienced in management, teaching
cally available resources. Managing software engi- a software engineering project management course
neering projects is as much a job of social inter- at a school that specializes in software education.
action as it is one of technical direction. This paper A “spiral approach” was used to provide for the
examines the social arrangements that a software parallel acquisition of management knowledge and
manager must deal with in developing and using experience, while building on recently acquired
new computing systems, evaluating the appropriate- skills in software technology and developing con-
ness of software engineering tools or techniques, fidence through the successful development of a
directing the evolution of a system through its life software product. This paper describes the reason
cycle, organizing and staffing software engineering for selecting the approach, the course content, the
projects, and assessing the distributed costs and observation of the students and the instructor, the
benefits of local software engineering practices. advantages and disadvantages of the approach as
The purpose is to underscore the role of social applied, and conclusions. Course objectives were
analysis of software engineering practices as a cor- met and course evaluations by students indicated a
nerstone in understanding what it takes to produc- much higher level of acceptance than previous tra-
tively manage software projects. ditional approaches. The observations indicated
This article is appropriate reading for a discussion that the approach may extend beyond the classroom
of people management.
26 Draft For Public Review SEI-CM-21-1.0
Software Project Management
to the industrial setting where on the job training, Tausworthe80
career path planning, and management develop- Tausworthe, Robert C. “The Work Breakdown
ment are of concern. Structure in Software Project Management.” J. Syst.
This report reflects on a single attempt to adapt the and Software 1, 3 (August 1980), 181-186.
spiral approach to project management education. Abstract: The work breakdown structure (WBS) is
The course proceeded through individual, small, a vehicle for breaking an engineering project down
and medium sized projects, adding techniques and into subproject, tasks, subtasks, work packages, and
knowledge as the scope expanded. This approach so on. It is an important planning tool which links
contrasts with the organization of the available proj- objectives with resources and activities in a logical
ect management texts, which are still quite linear. framework. It becomes an important status monitor
This approach has its merits and should be consid- during the actual implementation as the comple-
ered in the development of project management tions of subtasks are measured against the project
courses. plan. Whereas the WBS has been widely used in
many other engineering applications, it has seem-
Stuckenbruck81 ingly only rarely been formally applied to software
Stuckenbruck, Linn C. “The Matrix Organization.” projects, for various reasons. Recent successes
In A Decade of Project Management: Selected Read- with software project WBSs, however, have clearly
ings from the Project Management Quarterly, 1970 indicated that the technique can be applied and
have shown the benefits of such a tool in manage-
through 1980, John R. Adams and Nicki S. Kirchof,
ment of these projects.
eds. Drexel Hill, Pa.: Project Management Institute,
1981, 157-169. This paper advocates and summarizes the use of the
WBS in software implementation projects. It also
This paper describes the matrix form of organizing identifies some of the problems people have had
a development organization. In general, it can be generating software WBSs, and the need for stan-
thought that the staff are organized by expertise dard checklists of items to be included.
(architects, designers, coders, testers, computer sup-
port, etc.) into manageable groups along the hori- This paper presents the work breakdown structure
zontal axis. The actual development projects are as a viable planning tool for software project man-
along the vertical axis. They get commitments from agers and includes an outline of the detailed work
the managers on the vertical axis for the people to breakdown structure.
do their projects.
Symons88 Thayer, Richard H., Arthur Pyster, and Roger
Symons, Charles R. “Function Point Analysis: Dif- C. Wood. “The Challenge of Software Engineering
ficulties and Improvements.” IEEE Trans. Software Project Management.” Computer 13, 8 (Aug. 1980),
Eng. SE-14, 1 (Jan. 1988), 2-11. 51-58.
Abstract: The method of Function Point Analysis This article is a reasonably well-conducted survey
was developed by Allan Albrect to help measure the of project managers, programmers, engineers, and
size of a computerized business information system. students to determine the perceived biggest prob-
Such sizes are needed as a component of the meas- lems in software project management and potential
urement of productivity in system development and solutions. Due to deficiencies in the instrument (not
maintenance activities, and as a component of es- enough room left for describing known solutions),
timating the effort needed for such activities. Close the problems certainly get more play than the an-
examination of the method shows certain swers. The data seem still to be valid.
weaknesses, and the author proposes a partial al-
ternative. The paper describes the principles of this Thayer88
“Mark II” approach, the results of some measure-
Thayer, R. H., ed. Tutorial: Software Engineering
ments of actual systems to calibrate the Mark II
approach, and conclusions on the validity and ap- Project Management. Washington, D.C.: IEEE
plicability of function point analysis generally. Computer Society Press, 1988.
This article is excellent for the presentation and This tutorial contains many of the important papers
contrast of the two function point methods relevant to software engineering and project man-
(Albrecht’s and Symons’s). agement. Included are papers on software engineer-
ing, project management, planning, organizing,
staffing, directing, and controlling a software engi-
SEI-CM-21-1.0 Draft For Public Review 27
Software Project Management
Walpole85 ular significance of this approach for software man-
Walpole, R. E., and R. H. Myers. Probability and agers is that it recognizes the rapid changes that
Statistics for Engineers and Scientists, 3rd Ed. New occur in the modern workplace and incorporates
York: MacMillan, 1985. this reality into its management guidelines.
The mathematical approach to probability and sta-
Weinberg, G. M. The Psychology of Computer
and Related Publications
Programming. New York: Van Nostrand, 1971.
This book is a classic that looks at the human ele- Bertziss, Alfs T., and Mark A. Ardis. Formal Verifi-
ment of computer programming. It investigates in
cation of Programs. Curriculum Module SEI-
detail the behavior and thought processes of com-
puter programmers at the time. CM-20-1.0, Software Engineering Institute, Carne-
gie Mellon University, Pittsburgh, Pa., Dec. 1988.
Weinberg84 Capsule Description: This module introduces for-
Weinberg, Gerald M., and Daniel P. Freedman. mal verification of programs. It deals primarily
“Reviews, Walkthroughs, and Inspections.” IEEE with proofs of sequential programs, but also with
Trans. Software Eng. SE-10, 1 (Jan. 1984), 68-72. consistency proofs for data types and deduction of
particular behaviors of programs from their specifi-
Abstract: Formal technical reviews supply the cations. Two approaches are considered: verifi-
quality measurement to the “cost effectiveness” cation after implementation that a program is con-
equation in a project management system. There sistent with its specification, and parallel develop-
are several unique formal technical review proce- ment of a program and its specification. An assess-
dures, each applicable to particular types of tech- ment of formal verification is provided.
nical material and to the particular mix of the Re-
view Committee. All formal technical reviews pro- Brackett88
duce reports on the overall quality for project man- Brackett, John W. Software Requirements. Curric-
agement, and specific technical information for the
producers. These reports also serve as an historic ulum Module SEI-CM-19-1.0, Software Engineering
account of the systems development process. His- Institute, Carnegie Mellon University, Pittsburgh,
toric origins and future trends of formal and infor- Pa., Dec. 1988.
mal technical reviews are discussed. Capsule Description: This curriculum module is
This article fits well in the discussion of tracking, concerned with the definition of software require-
reviewing, and adjusting goals. ments—the software engineering process of deter-
mining what is to be produced—and the products
generated in that definition. The process involves:
• requirements identification,
Weinberg, Gerald M. Becoming a Technical Leader.
New York: Dorset House, 1988. • requirements analysis,
• requirements representation,
Weinberg presents his “MOI” model of technical
leadership in this “how-to” book. The successful • requirements communication, and
problem-solving leader, he asserts, has strong skills • development of acceptance criteria and
in three areas: motivation, organization, and procedures.
innovation. The outcome of requirements definition is a precur-
sor of software design.
Weisbord, Marvin R. Productive Workplaces: Or- Brown87
ganizing and Managing for Dignity, Meaning, and Brown, Brad. Assurance of Software Quality. Cur-
Community. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 1988. riculum Module SEI-CM-7-1.1, Software Engineer-
Weisbord reviews the significant movements in
ing Institute, Carnegie Mellon University, Pitts-
management science and offers his own view of burgh, Pa., July 1987.
how to design and manage more productive Capsule Description: This module presents the un-
workplaces that meet more successfully the needs derlying philosophy and associated principles and
of both organizations and employees. The partic- practices related to the assurance of software qual-
28 Draft For Public Review SEI-CM-21-1.0
Software Project Management
ity. It includes a description of the assurance acti- Glass88
vities associated with the phases of the software de- Glass, Robert L. An Overview of Technical Commu-
velopment life-cycle (e.g., requirements, design, nication for the Software Engineer. Curriculum
Module SEI-CM-18-1.0, Software Engineering Insti-
tute, Carnegie Mellon University, Pittsburgh, Pa.,
Budgen89 April 1988.
Budgen, David. Introduction to Software Design.
Curriculum Module SEI-CM-2-2.1, Software Engi- Capsule Description: This module presents the
neering Institute, Carnegie Mellon University, Pitts- fundamentals of technical communication that
might be most useful to the software engineer. It
burgh, Pa., Jan. 1989. discusses both written and oral communication.
Capsule Description: This curriculum module pro-
Although the information in this module is general,
vides an introduction to the principles and concepts
the bibliography contains helpful references.
relevant to the design of large programs and sys-
tems. It examines the role and context of the design
activity as a form of problem-solving process, de- Mills88
scribes how this is supported by current design Mills, Everald E. Software Metrics. Curriculum
methods, and considers the strategies, strengths, Module SEI-CM-12-1.1, Software Engineering Insti-
limitations, and main domains of application of tute, Carnegie Mellon University, Pittsburgh, Pa.,
these methods. Dec. 1988.
Collofello88a Capsule Description: Effective management of any
process requires quantification, measurement, and
Collofello, James S. Introduction to Software Verifi- modeling. Software metrics provide a quantitative
cation and Validation. Curriculum Module SEI- basis for the development and validation of models
CM-13-1.1, Software Engineering Institute, Carne- of the software development process. Metrics can
gie Mellon University, Pittsburgh, Pa., Dec. 1988. be used to improve software productivity and qual-
ity. This module introduces the most commonly
Capsule Description: Software verification and
used software metrics and reviews their use in con-
validation techniques are introduced and their ap-
structing models of the software development proc-
plicability discussed. Approaches to integrating
ess. Although current metrics and models are cer-
these techniques into comprehensive verification
tainly inadequate, a number of organizations are
and validation plans are also addressed. This cur-
achieving promising results through their use.
riculum module provides an overview needed to un-
Results should improve further as we gain addition-
derstand in-depth curriculum modules in the verifi-
al experience with various metrics and models.
cation and validation area.
Collofello, James S. The Software Technical Review Morell, Larry J. Unit Testing and Analysis. Curric-
Process. Curriculum Module SEI-CM-3-1.5, Soft- ulum Module SEI-CM-9-1.2, Software Engineering
ware Engineering Institute, Carnegie Mellon Univer- Institute, Carnegie Mellon University, Pittsburgh,
sity, Pittsburgh, Pa., June 1988. Pa., April 1989.
Capsule Description: This module examines the
Capsule Description: This module consists of a
techniques, assessment, and management of unit
comprehensive examination of the technical review
testing and analysis. Testing and analysis strat-
process in the software development and mainte-
egies are categorized according to whether their
nance life cycle. Formal review methodologies are
coverage goal is functional, structural, error-
analyzed in detail from the perspective of the review
oriented, or a combination of these. Mastery of the
participants, project management and software
material in this module allows the software engi-
quality assurance. Sample review agendas are also
neer to define, conduct, and evaluate unit tests and
presented for common types of reviews. The objec-
analyses and to assess new techniques proposed in
tive of the module is to provide the student with the
information necessary to plan and execute highly
efficient and cost effective technical reviews.
Cross88 Perlman, Gary. User Interface Development. Cur-
Cross, John, ed. Support Materials for The Software riculum Module SEI-CM-17-1.0, Software Engi-
Technical Review Process. Support Materials SEI- neering Institute, Carnegie Mellon University, Pitts-
SM-3-1.0, Software Engineering Institute, Carnegie burgh, Pa., April 1988.
Mellon University, Pittsburgh, Pa., April 1988.
SEI-CM-21-1.0 Draft For Public Review 29
Software Project Management
Capsule Description: This module covers the is- Scacchi87
sues, information sources, and methods used in the Scacchi, Walt. Models of Software Evolution: Life
design, implementation, and evaluation of user Cycle and Process. Curriculum Module SEI-
interfaces, the parts of software systems designed to
CM-10-1.0, Software Engineering Institute, Carne-
interact with people. User interface design draws
on the experiences of designers, current trends in gie Mellon University, Pittsburgh, Pa., Oct. 1987.
input/output technology, cognitive psychology, Capsule Description: This module presents an in-
human factors (ergonomics) research, guidelines troduction to models of software system evolution
and standards, and on the feedback from evaluating and their role in structuring software development.
working systems. User interface implementation It includes a review of traditional software life-
applies modern software development techniques to cycle models as well as software process models
building user interfaces. User interface evaluation that have been recently proposed. It identifies three
can be based on empirical evaluation of working kinds of alternative models of software evolution
systems or on the predictive evaluation of system that focus attention to either the products, produc-
design specifications. tion processes, or production settings as the major
source of influence. It examines how different soft-
Samuelson88 ware engineering tools and techniques can support
Samuelson, Pamela, and Anne Crawford Martin. life-cycle or process approaches. It also identifies
Software Development and Licensing Contracts. techniques for evaluating the practical utility of a
given model of software evolution for development
Curriculum Module SEI-CM-15-1.0, Software Engi- projects in different kinds of organizational settings.
neering Institute, Carnegie Mellon University, Pitts-
burgh, Pa., April 1988.
Capsule Description: This module provides an Tomayko, James E. Software Configuration Man-
overview of contract law and principles that form agement. Curriculum Module SEI-CM-4-1.3, Soft-
the framework within which software development ware Engineering Institute, Carnegie Mellon Univer-
contracts and software licensing contracts are made
sity, Pittsburgh, Pa., 1987.
and enforced. It discusses some of the substantive
provisions of software contracts and licenses, along Capsule Description: Software configuration man-
with the “default setting” that intellectual property agement encompasses the disciplines and tech-
law provides when parties to a contract have failed niques of initiating, evaluating, and controlling
to make their rights and responsibilities explicit. It change to software products during and after the
also discusses limitations that laws place on the development process. It emphasizes the importance
freedom of developers and users to make certain of configuration control in managing software pro-
kinds of contractual arrangements for software. duction.
Samuelson, Pamela, and Kevin Deasy. Intellectual Tomayko, James E. Teaching a Project-Intensive In-
Property Protection For Software. Curriculum troduction to Software Engineering. Technical Re-
Module SEI-CM-14-2.1, Software Engineering Insti- port SEI-87-TR-20, Software Engineering Institute,
tute, Carnegie Mellon University, Pittsburgh, Pa., Carnegie Mellon University, Pittsburgh, Pa., April
July 1989. 1987.
Capsule Description: This module provides an This document contains a syllabus and description
overview of the U.S. intellectual property laws that of an introduction to software engineering course
form the framework within which legal rights in that demonstrates how to integrate management ma-
software are created, allocated, and enforced. The terial into such a course.
primary forms of intellectual property protection
that are likely to apply to software are copyright,
patent, and trade secret laws, which are discussed
with particular emphasis on the controversial issues
arising in their application to software. Also in-
cluded is a brief introduction to government soft-
ware acquisition regulations, trademark, trade
dress, and related unfair competition issues that
may affect software engineering decisions, and to
the Semiconductor Chip Protection Act.
30 Draft For Public Review SEI-CM-21-1.0