Posted by Autism Speaks staffers Simon Wallace, Ph.D., director of scientific development for Europe; Dana Marnane, vice president of awareness and events; and Daniel Lightfoot, Ph.D., director of the Autism Tissue Program
Over the last week, we visited three European countries to explore partnerships with researchers and autism organizations. In particular we’ve been discussing Autism Speaks’ efforts in the areas of awareness, communication, our Global Autism Public Health (GAPH) initiative and the Autism Tissue Program (ATP).
Pulling our suitcases behind us, our first stop was in Stockholm, Sweden, where we met with Prof. Sven Bölte, of the Karolinska Institute for Neurodevelopmental Disorders, to discuss establishing an autism brain bank in Sweden.
As highlighted in a recent Nature article, one of the best ways for scientists to understand how autism affects brain development is by looking directly at the tissue. Just as diabetes researchers must study the pancreas, scientists studying developmental neurological conditions such as autism must study brain tissue. Already, research has revealed altered cell organization in brains affected by autism. This research can continue and progress only by increasing donations of this precious resource. Autism Speaks is working with its partnering brain bank in the UK to expand collections into other European countries.
From Sweden, we traveled to London and shifted our focus from scientific research to autism awareness. In recent years, Autism Speaks has led global awareness efforts through initiatives such as our Ad Council campaigns, World Autism Awareness Day, GAPH and Light it up Blue. The measurable success of these efforts has led to expanded partnerships with European organizations. During our London visit, this crystallized in a meeting with European parent organizations and other autism advocates.
Present at the meeting were representatives of Autism Europe (which includes over 80 member associations), Autistica, Autism France, the Celtic Nations Autism Partnership, London’s Centre for Research in Autism and Education, the Hungarian Autism Society and Irish Autism Action. We spent the day learning about each other’s campaigns and brainstorming ways to increase global autism awareness. Everyone was familiar with our Light it Up Blue initiative and were actively planning their increased participation in the year ahead. The overall feeling was that, together, we can accomplish so much more. We will continue exploring this fruitful partnership in the months ahead.
Next it was a short hop to Utrecht, in the Netherlands, at the invitation of Nederlandse Vereniging voor Autisme (NVA), the country’s national autism organization. Its staff and members were eager to learn more about GAPH and our international awareness initiatives. Our team also took this opportunity to explore the development of a brain tissue bank in the Netherlands, to match our efforts in the UK and Sweden.
A highlight from this visit was the Netherlands National Autism meeting, the first national meeting of Dutch autism families and their research community. As special guests, we heard about Dutch research examining the relationship between genes and behavior, autism prevalence, nutrition, the elderly and autism, enabling technology and an intervention for young people with autism to help them understand sexuality. Over the next few weeks we will be inviting some of these researchers to describe their studies on our science blog.
There is much we can learn by working together with our European partners, and our visit was an important step in forging closer collaborations involving science and awareness. Goodbye for now; hejdå and dag to our Swedish and Dutch friends!
Standing before the audience at the New York State Autism Consortium Meeting for Proposed Tissue Collaboration in March, Judith Omidvaran relayed the events that changed her life nearly four years ago. Judith and her husband were the parents of Sina, a 29 year old young man with high functioning autism and epilepsy. Sina had endured previous seizures, but this one took him from his loving parents forever. Reflecting back on that day, now seared into her memory, Judith recalled making a very important and lasting choice. Sina was gone from their everyday lives but she and her husband could donate his brain tissue. In that moment the grieving parents chose to make a lasting contribution to autism research and provide hope for a greater understanding of the lives and all too often untimely deaths of individuals with ASD.
Sudden, unexplained death related to epilepsy (SUDEP) is a most uncomfortable topic, but also a very important one. A new study led by members of Autism Speaks’ staff and published in the Journal of Child Neurology revealed that individuals with ASD who also have a seizure disorder have a risk of death that is eight times greater those with ASD and no seizure disorder. Seizures are not always evident at the time of diagnosis of ASD, and often begin to manifest in adolescence. The difficulties of living with a chronic developmental disorder would seem to be enough, without the weight of worry that these statistics convey. However, one cannot be forearmed if not forewarned.
The release of these data may have been disturbing to some members of the autism community.
Roger Dunlap III was diagnosed with autism at three, and his parents went through the all preparations of caring for the lifelong needs of a child with special needs. Young Roger’s parents, Roger and Heather, began an organization to support the long term care of Roger and others who shared his challenges when these children would need support after their parents had passed. In a twist of cruel irony, young Roger died unexpectedly in his sleep at 9 years old. He was never diagnosed with epilepsy and the exact cause of death remains unknown. The Dunlaps also made an important choice at a difficult time. Their involvement in the autism community connected them with the Autism Tissue Program and they got a call about donation soon after young Roger’s passing. They have continued their remarkable support for the autism community both through their own organization and Autism Speaks.
At this point, however, our understanding of sudden death in autism and epilepsy is poor. An analysis of data on deaths from the California Department of Developmental Services reveal that the cause of death is unknown in 40% of cases. This particular area is one that the Autism Tissue Program is working to improve through detailed analyses of all donated tissue and also though a survey of ASD families who experienced a sudden death of their loved one with ASD .
Autism Speaks, in partnership with the International League Against Epilepsy (ILAE) and Citizens United for Research in Epilepsy (CURE), hosted a meeting in December 2010. The meeting brought together experts in epilepsy research and autism to discuss areas of greatest need and priority in research. The seven key points they developed include:
1) Identifying infants with seizures at risk for autism and those with autism at risk for epilepsy.
2) Identifying risk factors common to autism and epilepsy.
3) Developing new tools to effectively evaluate data specific to epilepsy and autism.
4) Identify and develop animal models, biomarkers and assessment tools that inform outcome in infants with epilepsy that go on to develop autism and infants with autism that go on to develop epilepsy.
5) Explore the underlying mechanisms of convergence between autism and epilepsy.
6) Coordinate tissue and brain banking efforts in epilepsy and autism.
7) Develop behavioral and pharmacological treatment models and methods in infants with epilepsy and autism (or with one and at risk for the other).
These aims are indeed important for taking the next research steps, however, the fortitude of parents in a time of crisis may be the greatest contribution toward advancing our understanding of sudden death in epilepsy and autism. If you wish to learn more about the Autism Tissue Program, or want to share a story and participate in a survey about sudden unexpected death of a family member with ASD, please go to their website for more information or email email@example.com.
Read the press release on the Journal of Child Neurology publication here.
By Geri Dawson, Chief Science Officer, Autism Speaks
When I am giving talks to families about the research Autism Speaks funds, I am sometimes asked why we are funding a particular study when that study appears to have very little to do with the majority of people who actually are living and struggling with autism. This especially comes up when I am talking about studies involving animal models, brain tissue, and rare genetic conditions. Parents often express their frustration that scientists have not yet developed medications that can improve the quality of life for people with autism, medications that can help a child or adult with autism spectrum disorders (ASD) communicate better or be more comfortable around other people. I realize then that the connection between many of the studies we fund and our goal of developing medications that can help people with autism may not be clear. In this article, I hope to illustrate how many of the individual studies that we fund – which in isolation may not seem relevant – are part of a discovery and development process ultimately aimed at providing medications that can improve the life of individuals with ASD.
I will begin with some background on the process of moving from basic laboratory studies to delivery of a useful medication to the community, a process often referred to as “translational research.” The process of drug discovery begins with identification of a “drug target.” A drug target is a component of a biochemical pathway, sometimes referred to as a “signaling” or “metabolic” pathway. How do we figure out what signaling or metabolic pathways are affected in ASD? One way is to closely examine the actual brain cells of persons with autism, which is only possible with post-mortem brain tissue donated by families (view a recently funded study using post-mortem brain tissue).
Another way is to use animal models (see a perspective on mouse models from Craig Powell) to study the effects of a genetic mutation that is known to result in ASD or ASD symptoms. It has also been useful to start by studying conditions such as Rett syndrome and Fragile X syndrome because the genetics of these conditions are well understood. In addition, we know that these conditions are often associated with autism (e.g., about 30 percent of individuals with Fragile X also have autism). Animal models of these syndromes are becoming well developed, allowing scientists to study how the genetic mutation influences the biochemistry and brain functioning (view a recently funded study of synaptic alterations in the amygdala). These types of studies pointed scientists to specific signaling pathways; for example, a pathway involving two neurotransmitters: GABA and glutamate. These chemicals are crucial for neurons (brain cells) to establish a communication network through the formation of synapses (connections between neurons). Specifically, the genetic mutation alters the amount of these chemicals released in the brain (i.e., too much glutamate), resulting in over-excitation of the neural circuits. This disrupts learning.
Interestingly, at the same time these discoveries were being made, other scientists discovered that many of the genetic mutations that result in autism also disrupt the functioning of the synapse (view a recently funded study of synapse function). The strategy here is to look for common signaling pathways that are disrupted by different risk genes. These pathways offer the best hope for developing a medication that can be helpful not just with one genetic subtype of ASD, but more generally for many individuals who have ASD (even those where an environmental trigger might have been involved).
The process of drug target identification
Once a disrupted pathway or pathways contributing to a condition is discovered, scientists can start testing (“validating”) whether certain medications can restore the functioning of that pathway and improve behavioral functioning in animal models and humans. Another strategy for testing different medications is to examine the effects of the medication on cells (neurons) derived from freshly isolated post-mortem brain tissue that was donated by individuals with autism through Autism Speaks’ Autism Tissue Program.
Currently, several medications that are designed to improve behavioral functioning in autism are being tested in persons with associated genetic disorders such as Rett syndrome, Tuberous Sclerosis, and Fragile X syndrome (view two recently funded human clinical trials of medications for Rett syndrome and Tuberous Sclerosis ). If these medications are found to improve behavioral functioning in individuals with these conditions, plans to study some of these medications with people with ASD will follow. The hope is that because these conditions share some biological and behavioral similarities, these same medications will be more widely effective. At the same time, drawing from what we have learned about the role of glutamate from studies of Fragile X syndrome, Autism Speaks is currently funding a “phase one” or “proof of concept” clinical trial of memantine, a medication that reduces the availability of glutamate, for persons with ASD. As we understand more about the underlying biology of ASD using the strategies described above, there will be more promising leads for new medications that can improve the lives of persons with ASD.
The process from target identification to FDA approval of a new medication is arduous. Animal and human studies are needed to examine safety, side effects, optimal dosing, and other factors (these are referred to as Phase I, II, and III clinical trials). This “drug development pipeline” involves the collaboration among agencies such as the NIH and Autism Speaks that provide research funding; academic scientists who often conduct the high risk research that leads to target identification and validation; pharmaceutical companies who, once a target is validated, have the capability and resources of conducting the larger Phase II and III trials; and the FDA who is responsible for approving the medication for wide usage. This collaboration is essential for drug discovery and development.
Translational research moves findings from the lab to the families. It is one of many diverse areas of research emphasis at Autism Speaks. This type of research provides hope for the future. But, at the same time, we are funding studies that have more immediate impact on people lives. These include studies of novel behavioral and other types of interventions that can be quickly implemented by parents, therapists, and teachers, as well as many others (see examples of recently funded studies on Pivotal Response Training and Cognitive Enhancement Therapy that can have immediate impact. This balance between short- and long-term research is a key part of Autism Speaks’ overall funding strategy.
This is a guest blog by Jane Pickett, Ph.D. Dr. Pickett has been a pinnacle and founding member of the Autism Tissue Program (ATP), with an unparalleled experience in the field of autism tissue research and brain banking. Among her duties, Jane stewards the ATP’s vast tissue resources and accumulated data through the ATP Portal, manages the ATP’s large tissue grant portfolio, oversees the TAB and is the direct contact for our supported scientists. Jane has over 10 years experience serving as coordinator of the Developmental Disability services in Oregon where she participated on the Early Intervention Team, developed and monitored state funded programs for all age groups, provided crisis management for families and facilitated parent support groups. Her research background includes published studies in molecular and behavioral genetics, neuropeptide biosynthesis, cellular and developmental processes and the role of stress, gender and hormones at Princeton University. Jane also holds a staff position at the Harvard Brain and Tissue Research Center (HBTRC).
Biologists often try to understand a particular disorder from the perspective of a particular cell, or cell structure. This was an idea behind a recent public talk, “The Autism Spectrum: Recent Scientific Advances”, by UC Irvine (UCI) medical geneticist Dr. John Jay Gargus. The link between autism and mitochondria is also the subject of a number of research projects supported by post-mortem brain tissue donated by families to the Autism Tissue Program (ATP).
A mitochondrion is an energy-producing organelle found in cells in the body. Cells that require a lot of energy (like brain, muscle and liver) have 1000s of mitochondria and others with low energy demand have just a few. Mitochondria float in the cytoplasm of the cell, outside of the nucleus where the cell’s chromosomes reside. Each mitochondrion has its own set of 37 genes in a small circular ring of DNA that encode proteins integral for mitochondrial function. However, the mitochondria cannot act entirely alone, depending in part on the production of proteins from some of the genes in the nucleus for full functionality.
Mitochondria combine the fats and sugars we eat with the oxygen we breathe to produce energy for almost all of our cellular needs. If mitochondria are not functioning properly, cells are affected too. Consider brain cells, highly specialized cells with high energy requirements during their development, migration, maturation and function. Brain cells called neurons develop processes in order to deliver chemical messages over long distances; sometimes these processes, called axons, are several inches long for a neuron in one side (hemisphere) of the brain to communicate with cells on the other side of the brain. Mitochondria must provide the energy to ‘build’ these processes, be transported along the axons and once at the junction with other cells (synapses) their functions are necessary to keep up with the demands of brain circuits performing such roles as sensory processing, attention, learning and memory.
The donor, age 25, had autism and a chromosome duplication called IDIC15q. The pathology observed may be linked to a problem with the system of electron carriers that are needed to make energy rich molecules from metabolism in the mitochonrida. A partial block in the electron-transport chain (respiratory chain) was observed in living persons with autism and IDIC15q by a team working with Dr. Jay Gargus and reported in the journal Mitochrondrion (2).
Muscle hypotonia is common in autism and IDIC15q patients. The energy made by mitochondria provides the main source of power for muscle cell contraction and nerve cell firing so that muscle cells and nerve cells are especially sensitive to mitochondrial defects. The combined effects of energy deprivation contributes to the main symptoms of mitochondrial myopathies and encephalopathies (muscle and brain disorders). The link between autism and mitochondrial disease is the focus of rigorous study and the subject of one of the top ten research achievements in 2009 (3).
Other mitochondrial abnormalities have been described in brain tissue of individuals with autism. A molecular survey of the tissues of the cortex and cerebellum of brains of individuals with autism showed a change in the function of a gene, SLC25A12, a key element in mitochondrial energy production and cell metabolism (4). This gene is important in neurodevelopment and ‘turns on’ early in fetal brain tissue giving rise to a select region associated with early exaggerated postnatal brain growth in children with autism. A second report on brain genetics from the same French-US group explored another susceptibility locus for autism, a gene called MARK1 (5). The MARK1 gene product is an enzyme that regulates mitochondrial trafficking along microtubules in neurons: a process which serves as a sort of “highway” within a cell. Without the right amount of MARK1 produced, mitochondria are likely to be stuck in a “traffic jam” and impair cellular function. In both studies, the authors discovered an over expression of the two genes in the prefrontal cortex but not in the cerebellum.
So, what is autism to a mitochondrion? The significance of these findings is that cellular and molecular changes found in the brains of persons with autism are linked to mitochondrial function and are thought to compromise a host of physical and cognitive problems seen in the disorder. Continued research on the state of mitochondria in autism increases the potential for new diagnostics and therapies. Brain tissue is important to be able to visualize structural changes as well as to document molecular changes within the cell.
Acknowledgement: We wish to gratefully recognize the gifts of hope by the families of brain donors. Autism Speaks’ Autism Tissue Program supports specialized neuropathology research by providing approved scientists access to the most rare and necessary of resources, post mortem human brain tissue. Anyone can register to be a future brain tissue donor. Information can be found at www.autismtissueprogram.org or call toll-free 877-333-0999 for a packet of information, with questions or to initiate a brain donation. Without this partnership between families and scientists, our progress in understanding the underlying biology of autism so effective treatments can be discovered would be much slower.
1. ATP Informatics Portal, ATP Documents, www.atpportal.org
2. Filipek, Pauline A. et al. (2008) Mitochondrial Dysfunction in Autistic Patients with 15q Inverted Duplication. Mitochondrion 8: 136–145.
3. Shoffner J, et al. (2009) Fever Plus Mitochondrial Disease Could Be Risk Factors for Autistic Regression J Child Neurol. Sep 22. [Epub ahead of print]
4. Lepagnol-Bestel AM, et al. (2008) SLC25A12 expression is associated with neurite outgrowth and is upregulated in the prefrontal
cortex of autistic subjects. Molecular Psychiatry. 13(4):385-97.
5. Maussion G, et al. (2008) Convergent evidence identifying MAP/microtubule affinity regulating kinase 1 (MARK1) as a susceptibility gene for autism. Human Molecular Genetics 17:1-11