- The history of the Dravidian languages
- Dravidian studies
- Literary languages
- Nonliterary languages
- Phonological features of Dravidian languages
- Grammatical features and changes
- Dravidian and Indo-Aryan
- Distant relationships
- Dravidian cognates from representative languages
Proto-Dravidian word formation
A root comprises the basic set of sounds that denote a general concept; prefixes, suffixes, and infixes may be attached to roots to provide them with specific meaning. For instance, the English root r-n(n) ‘the basic idea of running’ (optional components are enclosed in parentheses) may become the specific words run, ran, and running through the affixation of -u-, -a-, and -u-ing, respectively.
The roots of Proto-Dravidian are monosyllabic. A vowel is essential and can stand alone or be preceded or followed by a consonant, as with *ā ‘to become,’ *kā ‘to guard,’ *kaṇ ‘eye,’ and *koy ‘to cut.’ The vowel may be long or short. There are thus eight types of roots in Proto-Dravidian that can be described in terms of V (vowel) and C (consonant) combinations: V1, C1V1, V1C2, C1V1C2, V:1, C1V:1, V:1C2, C1V:1C2 (subscript numbers indicate the position in a root; V represents a short vowel, while V: is a long vowel).
As there are no prefixes or infixes in Proto-Dravidian, its words always begin with a root. Alveolars and retroflexes do not begin a word in Proto-Dravidian. Almost all consonants can occur in the ending (also called root final) position—that is, as C2—except perhaps *ñ. Except for *r and *ẓ, which can occur only singly, all consonants can occur in single or doubled form.
Grammatical relations at the word level are expressed by suffixation. Roots can be extended by the addition of one or two suffixes, though the meanings of such suffixes is not always clear. The first possible extension is a vowel (V2), always a, i, or u; it is added to roots that end in consonants. The second suffix type can be added to roots that end in vowels or to roots with a base that is already extended by the addition of a V2; it can take one of three possible forms: -C(V), -CC(V), or -CCC(V). Examples of these forms of suffixation include the series *kā-y ‘to burn,’ *kā-nk-u (intransitive verb) ‘to boil,’ and *kā-nkk-u (transitive verb) ‘to boil’ and the series *tir-i ‘to turn,’ *tir-u-ku ‘to roam,’ *tir-a-y ‘to roll,’ *tir-u-nt-u ‘to be changed,’ and *tir-u-ntt-u ‘to change.’
The Proto-Dravidian method for the writing of obstruents deserves particular attention. When the letters transliterated as p, t, ṯ, ṭ, c, and k occur singly between vowels, they take on lenis (lighter) articulation—they would be pronounced as /w/, /ḏ/ or /ṟ/, /ḍ/, /s/, and /g/, respectively. When following a nasal sound, however, they become voiced: /ng/, /nḏ/ or /nṟ/, /ṇḍ/, /ñj/, /ng/. At the beginning of a word (p-, t-, ṯ-, ṭ-, c-, k-) and when doubled (pp, tt, ṯṯ, ṭṭ, cc, kk), they remain voiceless, as in *cupp-u ‘salt’ and *eṇ-ṭṭ-u ‘eight.’ A stop that occurs as a C2 is followed by the vowel *-u, a feature both automatic and predictable.
Proto-Dravidian words do not begin with consonant clusters (e.g., kr-, tr-, pr-). However, these developed later in South-Central Dravidian through certain sound changes. A differentiation between voiceless and voiced stops (e.g., /p/-/b/, /t/-/d/, /k/-/g/) became distinctive in most of the languages except Tamil and Malayalam through a series of internal changes and also through borrowing from the Indo-Aryan languages (especially Sanskrit and its genetically related languages). Most of the Dravidian languages also developed the voicing of stops at the beginning of words.
Proto-Dravidian sound changes
Several sound changes are found in all Dravidian languages in all subgroups. To be so widely distributed, these changes must have been prevalent in the parent language itself.
One such change is a secondary development of certain alveolar and retroflex stops, namely */ṯ/ and */ṭ/, and the nasals */ṉ/ and */ṇ/. These occur in sandhi (combinations of sounds in morphemes [the smallest meaningful units of sound]) from older sequences, as when /l/ (alveolar) combined with /t/ (dental) to produce /ṯ/ (alveolar); likewise, /ḷ/ (retroflex) + /t/ (dental) → /ṭ/ (retroflex), /l/ + /n/ (dental) → /ṉ/ (alveolar); and /ḷ/ + /n/ → /ṇ/ (retroflex). Comparison of cognates from different Dravidian languages sometimes necessitates the reconstruction of multiple roots in the parent language, as with the Proto-Dravidian *kal, *kat ‘to learn’; *nil, *nit, *nint ‘to stand’; *el, *ent ‘sunshine’; *uḷ, *uṇṭ ‘to be’; and so on. These can be explained only in terms of certain sandhi processes within Proto-Dravidian.
Another change attributed to Proto-Dravidian derives from a rule by which a heavy syllable of the type (C)VC- or (C)VCC- becomes a light syllable (C)VC- when followed by a formative suffix that begins with a vowel. In other words, the syllable is altered when affixed with a V2 suffix of the value -a, -i, or -u. For example, Proto-Dravidian *īr ‘two’ (noun) becomes *ir-u- ‘dual, double’ (adjective). A more complex example, *cupp- ‘salt’ and *cuw-ar ‘salty,’ illustrates the syllable change as well as an additional rule in which -p(p)- between vowels becomes -w-. This effect is illustrated in lines 5 and 8b in the etymology table.