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Professional Development for Adult ESL Practitioners: Building Capacity
Kirsten Schaetzel, Joy Kreeft Peyton, and Miriam Burt
(For an annotated bibliography on this topic, see Professional Development for Teachers of Adult English Language Learners: An Annotated Bibliography)
Background on Adult Learners
Adult education programs serve learners who are native English speakers and those whose first, or native, language is not English. Native English speakers attend adult basic education (ABE) classes to learn the skills needed to earn high school equivalency certificates or to achieve other goals related to job, family, or further education. English language learners attend English as a second language (ESL), ABE, or workforce preparation classes to improve their oral and written skills in English and to achieve goals similar to those of native English speakers.
Audience for This Brief
This brief is written for professional developers, teacher trainers, program administrators, education researchers, policymakers, and others who work with adult English language learners and who plan and deliver professional development to teachers of this population.
The need for education services has increased as immigrant populations have grown and dispersed across the country. According to recent statistics, 5.8 million legal permanent residents are in need of English language instruction to pass the naturalization exam and be able to participate in civic life; 6.4 million unauthorized immigrants will require English language instruction to obtain work permits and obtain legal permanent resident status; and 2.4 million immigrant youths aged 17-24 need English instruction in order to pass the GED exam (high school equivalency exam) or to begin postsecondary education without remediation (McHugh, Gelatt, & Fix, 2007). Learner progress is also an issue. Only 36% of students enrolled in ESL classes during 2003-2004 advanced to the next English proficiency level (McHugh, Gelatt, & Fix, 2007), and Chisman and Crandall (2007) estimate that only 10% of adult ESL students transfer to certificate- or degree-bearing programs based on the patterns they identified in their study of community college programs.
Because of these trends, there is a demand for qualified teachers to teach adult English language learners and a need for training and professional development for these teachers, who often do not have background and experience teaching this population. In addition to knowledge about second language acquisition and training in instructional methodologies, teachers need clear models of effective classroom practice that promote language learning and learner transitions, and they need support for participation in a coherent, sustained professional development system.
This brief describes the need for professional development, in adult education generally and specifically for teachers of adults learning English; reviews the literature on professional development in K-12, adult education, and education for adult English language learners and its implications for professional development planning; and describes a process for planning, implementing, evaluating, and systematizing professional development for teachers of adult English language learners. It ends with recommendations to ensure that quality professional development is in place in programs across the United States.
A need for professional development
Adult education is a challenging environment in which to provide professional development opportunities. Many adult educators work part time; teach in a variety of different programs and subject areas; are not paid to participate in in-service opportunities; and have time, distance, and financial constraints that limit their ability to participate in in-service professional development (Smith & Gillespie, 2007). Under the National Literacy Act of 1991, states began developing systems for providing teachers, tutors, administrators, and other adult education staff with professional development opportunities. Under the Workforce Investment Act of 1998 states began to set aside 12.5% of their adult education funding for applied research and program development activities to improve and expand adult basic education. However, these systems are in various stages of development (Belzer, Drennon, & Smith, 2001). In a review of professional development systems in five states (Idaho, Massachusetts, Ohio, Pennsylvania, and Virginia), Belzer, Drennon, and Smith identified key system features, including scope of the professional development offerings; leadership, individuals in the state who ensure that quality professional development is in place; coherence, logical relationships among professional development offerings; and accessibility to teachers of those offerings. Some states have well developed systems that possess these features. However, in many states with new immigrant populations, a professional development system for teachers of adult English language learners is just beginning to be developed.
Professional development for teachers of adult immigrant learners
Teachers also need to understand the social, cultural, and institutional contexts of their own and their students’ learning (Freeman & Johnson, 1998; Royal, 2007). When students are learning about their new culture, teachers may face difficult and unpredictable questions and situations that they need to know how to address “sensitively, respectfully, and appropriately” (Royal, 2007, p. 12). They need to not only teach English but also to be cultural and social brokers, to help students understand cultural meanings in specific events and situations (Gee, 2004). Teachers also need to help students make smooth transitions to higher levels of English classes, additional education, and additional responsibilities at work (Migration Policy Institute, 2007a).
Credentialing of teachers
Two examples of credentialing programs are the TESOL Certification Program at the College of Lake County in Grayslake, Illinois (Chisman & Crandall, 2007) and the Teaching English Literacy to Adult Learners course, sponsored by the South Carolina State Department of Education, at the College of Charleston. The TESOL Certification Program offers ESL teachers 30 credit hours in academic subjects and pedagogical skills specific to teaching adult English language learners. Teaching English Literacy to Adult Learners is a 45-hour course that covers the basics of teaching English to adult learners: needs assessment, lesson planning, formative and summative assessment, materials and resources, and teaching practices.
Review of the literature on professional development processes
Eight components of quality professional development emerged from the literature review. Each component is listed here with a brief statement of its implications for practice, followed by a summary of the literature that informs the implications.
Analyze data to determine needs.
Literature review. Researchers argue that effective professional development is based on analysis of data, so that it reflects understanding of the student population served and the teachers who work with those students (e.g., Gonzalez & Darling-Hammond, 1997; Sherman, Kutner, Tibbetts, & Wiedler, 2000; Smith, Hofer, Gillespie, Solomon, & Rowe, 2003). In adult education, data to be considered are immigrant populations in the areas served (e.g., numbers, countries of origin, native languages); learners’ English proficiency levels according to the National Reporting System (NRS); learner and program goals for level gain; teacher backgrounds and needs; program characteristics; and situational factors (e.g., a business has moved into the area and is hiring new immigrant workers who have limited literacy in their native language) in the state, regions, and programs that have an impact on the education of the student population.
Build professional development principles of adult learning
This means that professional development needs to be relevant to teachers’ work experiences and to build on those experiences in active learning opportunities. It also must increase teachers’ content knowledge. For teachers of adults learning English, this includes knowledge about acquisition of a second language and culture and about the language and cultural backgrounds of a diverse student population.
Literature review. Those involved in professional development for in-service teachers need to consider how adults learn (Earley & Bobb, 2004). Adults prefer to be in charge of their own learning and responsible for its direction, are problem solvers and able to draw on their experiences as they gain new knowledge and skills, and prefer their learning to be immediately applicable to their lives (Knowles, 1990).
Dennison and Kirk (1990) reflect the cyclical nature of adult learning in their “do, review, learn, apply, do, review, learn, apply” model, in which teachers build on their professional wisdom and knowledge of their classrooms. For example, a professional development activity in which teachers learn about student language errors and the possible effects of students’ first language on their production of English might have teachers analyze a sample of writing for errors (do), review their analysis with the trainer (review), ask questions about the patterns they see (learn), bring samples of their students’ writing to analyze in class (apply), develop a lesson for their students to address one of the types of errors identified (do), and so on.
In their evaluation of the Eisenhower Professional Development Program for K-12 math and science teachers, Garet, Porter, Desimone, Birman, and Yoon (2001) describe three core factors that promote teacher learning and change in classroom practice. The professional development activity focuses on content that teachers teach in their classes; provides opportunities for active, hands-on learning; and is integrated with other learning opportunities that teachers have. Similarly, in a study of three urban school systems, Firestone, Mangin, Martinez, and Polovsky (2005) found that the district with the most coherent focus on building teacher knowledge in selected subject areas had the greatest positive influence on teaching practice.
Literature review. Many researchers argue that a vision for professional development must be shared across a broad range of practitioners if it is to become a nautral part of teachers’ lives and programs. (Belzer, 2005; Belzer, Drennon, & Smith, 2001; Garet et al., 2001; Joyce & Showers, 2002; Marcinkiewicz, 2001; Senge, 1990). A shared vision “connects with the personal visions of people throughout the organization” (Senge, 1990, p. 214). In adult education, it reflects program directors’ and state education officers’ program improvement goals; teachers’ and tutors’ instructional goals; and national and state initiatives; and incorporates all of these into professional development offerings (Belzer, 2005). This allows participating practitioners to see how a particular activity helps fulfill their vision for improving the teaching and learning in their classes at the same time that it meets the needs of administrators in the program and the state.
In their review of five state professional development programs, Belzer, Drennon, and Smith (2001) found that all of the states “worked diligently to establish logical relationships in the range of their professional development offerings to ensure internal coherence across activities” (p. 8). Garet et al. (2001) found that shared vision is fostered when teachers from the same program or subject area are grouped together. Much K-12 professional development builds on natural teacher groupings according to grade levels, subjects, or schools that teachers work in. Such groupings are more challenging to identify in adult education, because teachers within a subject area or an entire program seldom meet during a term (Smith & Gillespie, 2007).
Increase the time and duration of professional development.
Literature review. Research indicates that the duration of professional development activities has an impact on outcomes and that one-day workshops with little or no follow-up do not have lasting impact on teaching practices (Garet et al., 2001; Richards & Farrell, 2005). In the Garet et al. study, two measures of duration, time span and contact hours, were found to have substantial influence on what the researchers term the core features of professional development: content, active learning, and coherence. The National Center for Education Statistics (2005) reports that K-12 teachers received 25 to 33 hours of professional development in the 1999-2000 school year. Although there are no such data for adult educators, it is unlikely that they receive this much professional develpment even in a full calendar year. Since many work part time, they do not have opportunities for regularly scheduled professional development over extended periods of time (Smith & Gillespie, 2007).
Research on “traditional” and “reform” professional development activities is also enlightening. Traditional activities—workshops, courses, and conferences—usually take place in brief time segments outside a teacher’s classroom. Reform types of professional development, sometimes referred to as on-the-job (or embedded) professional development, take place during a teacher’s class or within the context of a school program and tend to be based on reflective, collaborative models. They include mentoring, coaching, study circles, and formal professional learning communities (Garet et al., 2001; Smith et al., 2003;). Garet et al. found that reform activities tend to produce better results primarily because they are more intensive and sustained over periods of time. Likewise, a survey of teachers’ professional development activities found that the type of professional development provided did not have as much impact as other factors, such as the amount of time the teacher attended and the quality of the professional development provided (Smith & Hofer, 2002).
Finally, Farrell (in press), Richards and Farrell (2005), and Richardson (1998) distinguish between training models and reflective, collaborative models of professional development. Reflective, collaborative models tend to support voluntary teacher change through a process that is systematic and reflective, helping teachers to focus on their own change process. Through this, teachers may change not only their behaviors and actions, but also their rationale and justification for what and how they teach.
Provide a system for professional development.
Literature review. Researchers and program evaluators assert that in order to design and deliver professional development that is timely, based on data, and coherent, a state needs to have a system to facilitate its delivery (Belzer, Drennon, & Smith, 2001; Brancato, 2003; Senge, 1990; Smith et al., 2003). Brancato points out that professional development “is not merely the sum of its parts; it is the system in its entirety” (p. 63). In the conclusion of their study, Smith et al. observe that “professional development, while necessary, is not sufficient by itself to drive changes in practice. Professional development is one tool for change but needs to be offered within a context that supports teachers to make change” (p. 127).
Belzer (2005) recommends the following components of a professional development system that provides a context for teacher change:
In addition, a professional development system needs effective leadership. Program administrators need to be fully committed to the professional development effort. The evaluation of the Local Systemic Change Through Teacher Enhancement Program, designed to improve the teaching of science, mathematics, and technology in grades K through 8 through teacher professional development, showed that the involvement of principals and other administrators led to a better understanding of the support that teachers need and a greater willingness to provide it (Weiss, Montgomery, Ridgway, & Bond, 1998).
Similar results were found by evaluators Smith and Rowley (2005) in their analysis of data from the Schools and Staffing Survey, the largest, most comprehensive data source on the staffing, occupational, and organizational aspects of elementary and secondary schools. Smith and Rowley found that schools with a stronger commitment strategy (an organizational design that uses collaborative and participatory management strategies to improve teaching quality and student achievement) may be better able to achieve their goals because of increased teacher participation in content-related professional development activities. When administrators supported professional development activities and teachers had influence over policy, the impact of professional development was greater, and there was less teacher turnover.
Provide access to professional development opportunities.
Literature review. Smith and Gillespie (2007) chronicle many of the challenges related to making professional development accessible to teachers of adult learners, such as the part-time nature of employment and limited funding for teachers to attend. Crookes (1997) adds to these challenges teacher isolation and limited funding for programs. Of the five states that Belzer, Drennon, and Smith (2001) studied, four had developed regional systems to deliver professional development that was more accessible to teachers than when all activities were centralized in one area of the state. In these states, technology was also used as an alternative mode of delivery.
Evaluate professional development outcomes.
Literature review. Researchers and program evaluators assert that it is essential to evaluate the outcomes of professional development (Belzer, 2005; Darling-Hammond, 2005, 2006; Guskey, 2002; Kutner, Sherman, Tibbetts, & Condelli, 1997; McNamara, Mulcahy, & Curry, 2001; Mitchem, 2003). This includes involvement of all stakeholders (including participating teachers) in articulating expected outcomes, how outcomes will be measured, and what data will be collected when designing professional development activities. Data can be collected and used not only to evaluate the impact of an activity but also to be shared with others in the program (Mitchem, 2003). For example, if participants create a lesson plan using a new teaching strategy, the lesson plan can be used to evaluate how well they understood and used the new strategy and also can be shared with colleagues who were not able to attend the professional development activity.
Darling-Hammond (2006) argues that multiple pieces of data must be used to assess outcomes, because different types of data provide different kinds of information and indicate the strength of the results. For example, in assessing whether a teacher uses a new teaching strategy effectively, an evaluator may look at the teacher’s lesson plan. However, if the lesson plan is the only piece of evidence, the evaluator knows whether the teacher understands the new strategy but does not know if the teacher is able to use the strategy appropriately in the classroom. Another piece of evidence, such as a peer or mentor observation or a teacher reflection on the lesson, is needed.
Guskey (2002) argues that the impact of professional development should be evaluated in terms of the following levels:
Though much professional development evaluation focuses only on Levels 1 and 2, evaluation at all five levels needs to be part of an ongoing professional development process.
Similarly, the framework for evaluating professional development articulated by Kutner et al. (1997) assesses changes in instructors, program services, and student outcomes. Evaluation of instructors addresses instructor reactions to professional development experiences, acquisition of new skills and knowledge, and changes in instructional behavior. Evaluation of program services includes changes in instructional arrangements, program processes, student assessment, and learner supports. Evaluation of learners addresses student reactions to new teaching strategies, student acquisition of knowledge and skills, and changes in student behavior. Tools for evaluation include questionnaires, interviews, focus groups, peer or mentor observations, practitioner journals, instructor portfolios, and reviews of program policies and processes.
Engage a critical friend with whom to collaborate.
Literature review. The literature on critical friends provides strong support for work with an outsider, who brings perspective on processes, data, and outcomes from outside the system (Baker, Curtis, & Benenson, 1991; Carrington & Robinson, 2004; Fullan, 1991; Olsen & Jaramillo, 1999; Stenhouse, 1975; Swaffield, 2005; Swaffield & MacBeath, 2005). Baker, Curtis, and Benenson’s study of 48 school districts in Illinois found a positive correlation between the use of external consultants and school improvement.
Swaffield (2005) identified five aspects of the work of a critical friend:
Through this work, the critical friend assists teachers and program administrators in a change process, particularly in the process of program or state self-evaluation of professional development efforts (Swaffield & MacBeath, 2005). As data are analyzed to determine professional development needs and professional development is planned, a critical friend can assist in interpretation and reflection, providing a voice from outside the system.
Review of the literature on necessary teacher expertise
Others argue that while this focus is important, it overlooks critical components of knowledge (Yates & Muchinsky, 2003). It is important that teachers understand their teaching practice in its social and cultural context. At the same time, there are particular concepts that they must also understand in order to be effective with adult English language learners: how second and additional languages, and specific components of language, are learned; the role of the native language in learning a second language; evaluation of language learning; and cultural issues that teachers must address. The knowledge that teachers of adult English language learners need to have in each of these areas is described here.
Second language acquisition
Acquisition of components of language
Types of native language literacy
Evaluating language production
A Professional Development Process
Planning professional development
1. Conduct data and situational analyses
The information culled from these analyses provides a picture of a state’s learner population, teaching force, and other factors that indicate needs and guide professional development planning.
2. Identify practitioner groups to be served
For example, in a given state, analysis of population data might show that a new group of immigrants with little to no English proficiency (Somali Bantu) has settled in two regions in the state, and classes for beginning level learners have been established for them. NRS data might show that level gain targets for beginning level learners in those two regions are not being met. Teacher surveys show that teachers in those two regions are new and are asking for strategies to work with beginning and literacy level students. As a result, professional developers determine that in the coming year, the teachers in these literacy and beginning level classes need strategies and resources for teaching this population of students. (In this brief we use as an example practitioners working with literacy and beginning level learners. Many other learner groups might also be the focus of such a process, including those at high advanced levels who are making transitions to academic and workplace preparation programs and the workplace.)
3. Write a professional development plan
For example, professional development on working with literacy level and beginning students may include training in conducting needs assessments with this population, planning lessons for them, and incorporating appropriate teaching strategies and formative assessments into lessons. Expected outcomes might be that teachers write effective lesson plans and teach effective classes based on those plans.
4. Decide how to evaluate professional development outcomes
In line with the literature review discussed above, multiple measures need to be used and evaluations need to include more than the professional development activity itself, e.g., organization support and change, teacher use of knowledge and skills in practice, student outcomes. The team may measure teacher change in instruction of the student population through a review of participating teachers’ lesson plans, of teachers’ reflections on their lesson plans and on the lessons they taught, and of mentor observations of lessons taught. They may also measure changes in learners’ English language proficiency advancement through the program through a review of NRS and other data (e.g., student portfolios).
Implementing the professional development plan
Evaluating professional development
For example, one measure of the success of a training on lesson planning for beginning level learners might be that teachers would be able to conduct a language lesson in their classes, including the following lesson components: introduction, review, presentation, guided practice, communicative practice, evaluation, and application. This could be measured by the submission of a lesson plan and then observation of the teacher using the lesson plan to determine if all of the components are included and if the instructional strategies that have been the focus of professional development are used effectively. This review of lesson plans and subsequent observation might reveal that teachers do not know which activities to use for guided practice and which activities to use for communicative practice and that they need more practice in using the instructional strategies they have learned about. The state team might conclude that the teachers need more information about second language acquisition, the stages of language learning, and activities best suited for teaching language to beginning level students.
Other measures to determine the impact of professional development might include measures of student progress – NRS data, student portfolios, and data on student progress through and after the program.
Sustaining professional development
Levels of implementation of quality professional development
A given state may be at one of three levels with respect to these four criteria, as defined in Table 1.
Table 1. Stages of implementation of professional development
* PD = Professional development
By using the criteria outlined in Table 1 state teams and critical friends can assess a state’s current situation and ensure that they have taken all relevant aspects into consideration. They can then identify steps and strategies for establishing a systematic professional development plan for teachers and administrators working with adult English language learners.
Conclusion and recommendations
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There are many resources that will help professional developers facilitate the learning of content knowledge and instructional skills of teachers of adult English language learners. The following resources provide additional information. More resources can be found at www.cal.org/caela.
The CAELA Guide for Adult ESL Trainers (in press). www.cal.org/caela
Mathews-Aydinli & Taylor, Online professional development for adult ESL educators. (Washington, DC: Center for Adult English Language Acquisition, 2005). www.cal.org/caela/esl_resources/briefs/onlinepd.html
Schaetzel & England, New professional development strategies (ESL Magazine, 4(3), 26-28). Provides a list of different ways to make professional development available to busy practitioners.
This document was produced at the Center for Applied Linguistics (4646 40th Street, NW, Washington, DC 20016 202-362-0700) with funding from the U.S. Department of Education (ED), Office of Vocational and Adult Education (OVAE), under Contract No. ED-04-CO-0031/0001. The opinions expressed in this report do not necessarily reflect the positions or policies of ED. This document is in the public domain and may be reproduced without permission.