T HE P ARADOX OF INCLUSION BY E XCLUSION:
T HE A CCOMMODATION OF R ELIGION
IN THE P UBLIC S CHOOLS
K EVIN C. M C D OW ELL *
Government service provides unique opportunities, especially given the high
rate of constituent contact such positions require.
I received a telephone call from a concerned citizen who was greatly troubled
by what she perceived to be the efforts of her local public school district to
undermine American ideals and usher in a “One World Government.” At the
core of her suspicions was the teaching of the metric system of weights and
measures. The metric system, she asserted, is un-American. She knew that a
meter was longer than a yard, but she did not understand the relationship of grams
to pounds, liters to gallons, or centimeters to inches.
I attempted to reassure her that the metric system was not being foisted upon
the young and unsuspecting minds of our children as a part of some international
conspiracy. In fact, I advised, Congress authorized the use of the metric system
in the United States in the nineteenth Century.1
Undeterred, she coolly responded, with the clarity of vision that only
profound paranoia can provide: “If we convert to the metric system, have you
thought about what that will do the length of the calendar year?” There is a
certain degree of perverse logic in her non sequitur. Such curious illogic,
however, is not reserved to political or social arenas: It is prevalent in the pitched
battles waged over religion in the public schools. Although there are many facets
to the disputes over the extent to which religion must or should be accommodated
within a public school context, this article addresses only one observable
phenomenon—Inclusion by Exclusion.
While the U.S. Constitution does not sanction government hostility towards
religion,2 there is a belief by some that public schools are increasingly hostile to
one faith tradition—Christianity. 3 The government’s position should be one of
* General Counsel, Indiana Department of Education. This Article is based on remarks
presented by the author on September 29, 2006, at the Fellowship Symposium “From the State
House to the Schoolhouse: Religious Expression in the Public Sphere,” sponsored by the Program
on Law & State Government, Indiana University School of Law—Indianapolis.
1. The Metric Act of 1866 was enacted on July 28, 1866. It legally recognized the metric
system of measurement. The law is currently codified at 15 U.S.C. §§ 204, 205 (2000). The Metric
Conversion Act of 1975 (P.L. 94-168) designated the metric system as the preferred system of
weights and measures for trade and commerce. Congress directed federal agencies, to the extent
possible, to convert to the metric system. See 15 U.S.C. § 205a (2000).
2. Zorach v. Clauson, 343 U.S. 306, 314 (1952).
3. See, e.g., Harper v. Poway Unified Sch. Dist., 445 F.3d 1166 (9th Cir. 2006) (upholding
public school’s actions in preventing a student from wearing a T-shirt with religious messages
condemning homosexuality); Skoros v. New York City, 437 F.3d 1 (2d Cir. 2006) (affirming, in
a 2-1 decision, judgment in favor of public school district holiday display policy that permitted the
Jewish Menorah and the Islamic Star and Crescent but prohibited the Christian crèche); O.T. v.
Frenchtown Elementary Sch. Dist. Bd. of Educ., 465 F. Supp. 2d 369 (D.N.J. 2006) (holding public
500 INDIANA LAW REVIEW [Vol. 40:499
strict neutrality, neither aiding nor opposing religion. Those who believe public
schools are hostile to Christianity also typically assert that the public schools
actively promote either minority faith traditions or a “religion of secularism” that
favors irreligion over religion.4
This perception of hostility has resulted in a type of hyper-vigilance whereby
those who believe they are being excluded seek to ensure that all other
“religions,” secular or otherwise, are also excluded. Only through this exercise
of dogmatic “cleansing” can the excluded class be once again included on an
This paradoxical thinking does not appear to be organized or covert. It
appears to be more reactionary. Nonetheless, the phenomenon is real. The
following are examples of this phenomenon.
I. H ALLOW EEN
In Guyer v. School Board of Alachua County,5 the plaintiff removed his
children from their elementary school on Halloween because he objected to the
depiction of witches, cauldrons, brooms, and other traditional Halloween
symbols.6 The plaintiff asserted these symbols and other Halloween observations
violated the Establishment Clause of the First Amendment 7 by promoting a
religion known as “Wicca,” which involves witchcraft.8 The court noted that the
school employed Halloween symbols in a secular, non-sectarian manner and there
was no attempt to teach or promote Wicca, Satanism, witchcraft or any form of
religion. 9 “[C]ostumes and decorations simply serve to make Halloween a fun
day for the students and serve an educational purpose by enriching the
educational background and cultural awareness of the students.” 10 There was also
a witch in the school cafeteria holding a wand with the caption, “What’s
cooking?” 11 The court found that Halloween “enhances a sense of community”
school district was not justified in preventing second-grade student from singing “Awesome God”
at a school-sponsored talent show opened to the public). Dissenting opinions in both Skoros and
Harper raise interesting questions. The Supreme Court granted certiorari in the Harper case.
Harper v. Poway Unified Sch. Dist., 127 S. Ct. 1484 (2007). However, the Court declined to hear
the Skoros case. Skoros v. City of New York, 127 S. Ct. 1245 (2007).
4. Sch. Dist. of Abington Twp. v. Schempp, 374 U.S. 203, 225 (1963) (“We agree of course
that the State may not establish a religion of secularism in the sense of affirmatively opposing or
showing hostility to religion, thus preferring those who believe in no religion over those who do
believe.” (citation and internal punctuation omitted)).
5. 634 So. 2d 806 (Fla. Dist. Ct. App. 1994).
6. Id. at 806-07.
7. “Congress shall make no law respecting an establishment of religion . . . .” U.S. CONST.
8. Guyer, 634 So. 2d at 806-07.
9. Id. at 807.
10. Id. at 807-08 (noting that witches appear in many mainstream literary contexts).
11. Id. at 807 n.1.
2007] PARADOX OF INCLUSION BY EXCLUSION 501
and is basically “fun.”12 There are no violations of the Establishment Clause
merely because some adherents to a particular religion have adopted some of the
same symbols associated with Halloween.13 “Witches, cauldrons, and brooms in
the context of a school Halloween celebration appear to be nothing more than a
mere ‘shadow,’ if that, in the realm of establishment clause jurisprudence.” 14
II. M ASCOTS
Native American mascots in professional and collegiate sports have not been
the only source of controversy.15 In Kunselman v. Western Reserve Local School
District,16 the circuit court upheld a federal district court’s grant of summary
judgment to the school district regarding a challenge by the plaintiffs to the
school’s use of a “Blue Devil” as a mascot.17 The court found unreasonable the
plaintiffs’ assertion that the use of such a mascot promotes Satanism in violation
of the Establishment Clause.18 The “Blue Devil” mascot came from Duke
University, which, in turn, borrowed the name from an elite corps of French
alpine soldiers who fought in W orld W ar II wearing blue berets and going by the
nom du guerre “Blue Devils.” 19 The Circuit Court of Appeals, quoting the district
court’s decision, found the mascot’s use was entirely secular and did not have the
primary or principal effect of promoting Satanism.20 Being personally offended
does not create a constitutional violation.21
Additionally, in West Virginia v. Berrill, 22 the court upheld the defendant’s
convictions for disrupting a public meeting and wearing a mask.23 Berrill,
believing the school board did not take seriously his earlier concerns about the
school district’s use of a “red devil” as a mascot, disrupted a school board
meeting by dressing in a devil costume and prancing around the room, frightening
some children present.24
12. Id. at 808.
13. Id. at 809.
15. See, e.g., Pro-Football, Inc. v. Harjo, 415 F.3d 44 (D.C. Cir. 2005) (involving a long-
running dispute over the use of the term “redskin” by a professional football franchise); Crue v.
Aiken, 370 F.3d 668 (7th Cir. 2004) (involving one of several controversies involving “Chief
Illiniwek” at the University of Illinois).
16. 70 F.3d 931 (6th Cir. 1995).
17. Id. at 933.
18. Id. at 932.
20. Id. at 933.
21. Id. at 932-33.
22. 474 S.E.2d 508 (W. Va. 1996).
23. Id. at 510.
502 INDIANA LAW REVIEW [Vol. 40:499
III. T-S HIRTS
In Harper v. Poway Unified School District,25 the school district permitted the
Gay-Straight Alliance to hold a “Day of Silence” at the school to heighten
awareness of intolerance shown towards those of different sexual orientation.26
The school had experienced conflict in the past over this issue and the use of the
“Day of Silence.” 27 On the “Day of Silence” scheduled for 2004, Harper–a
sophomore at the time–wore a T-shirt expressing his religious objections to
homosexuality and his general objection that the school had seemingly endorsed
a practice that God had condemned.28 His T-shirt contained Biblical references.29
He was advised that his T-shirt created “a negative and hostile working
environment for others,” which violated the school’s dress code.30 Harper would
not remove his T-shirt. 31 He remained in the administration office for the day. 32
He was not suspended or disciplined.33 He later sued, asserting in part that the
school’s action violated the Free Exercise, Free Speech, and Establishment
Clauses of the First Amendment,34 as well as Equal Protection and Due Process
Clauses of the Fourteenth Amendment.35
The district court dismissed the Fourteenth Amendment claims and denied
injunctive relief. 36 The Ninth Circuit affirmed the denial of the injunctive relief
because it did not believe the student demonstrated a likelihood of success on his
First Amendment claims. 37 The case demonstrates how divided the Ninth Circuit
is on religious issues. One judge on the court sought rehearing en banc, which
was denied.38 But the resulting opinions concurring or dissenting were unusually
pointed. The dissent believed the majority engaged in “viewpoint
25. 445 F.3d 1166 (9th Cir. 2006), vacated, remanded, 127 S. Ct. 1484 (2007), appeal
dismissed as moot, 2007 U.S. App. LEXIS 9234 (9th Cir. Apr. 23, 2007).
26. Id. at 1171.
32. Id. at 1172.
34. “Congress shall make no law respecting an establishment of religion, or prohibiting the
free exercise thereof; or abridging the freedom of speech, or of the press . . . .” U.S. CONST.
35. Harper, 445 F.3d at 1273. “No state shall make or enforce any law which shall abridge
the privileges or immunities of citizens of the United States; nor shall any state deprive any person
of life, liberty, or property, without due process of law; nor deny to any person within its
jurisdiction the equal protection of the laws.” U.S. CONST. amend. XIV.
36. Harper, 445 F.3d at 1173.
37. Id. at 1192.
38. Harper v. Poway Unified Sch. Dist., 455 F.3d 1052 (9th Cir. 2006).
2007] PARADOX OF INCLUSION BY EXCLUSION 503
IV. E VOLUTION
In Peloza v. Capistrano Unified School District,40 Peloza was a biology
teacher who filed suit against his school district claiming his civil rights were
violated by the school’s actions requiring him to teach evolution and prohibiting
him from discussing religious matters with students on school grounds. 41 He
asserts that “evolutionism” is a “religious belief” and “not a valid scientific
theory.”42 He refused to include the theory of evolution in his instruction because
it is not “fact” and because it “occurred in the non-observable and non-recreatable
past and hence . . . not subject to scientific observation.” 43 The court found that
adding “ism” to “evolution” doesn’t “metamorphose ‘evolution’ into a religion.” 44
Disagreeing with the teacher, the court did not find that he was required to teach
the theory of evolution as fact nor did the court find that the theory of evolution
denies the existence of a divine creator. 45 “To say red is green or black is white
does not make it so.” 46 Thus, the teaching of the theory of evolution is not the
promotion of a religion.47
The court also found that the teacher’s rights of free speech were not
impermissibly violated by the school district’s reprimands and restrictions
regarding his proselytizing of students on school grounds.48 The court
acknowledged there was a restriction on his free speech rights, but such
restrictions on public school teachers are justified where there is a compelling
governmental interest in avoiding a constitutional violation.49 “The school
district’s interest in avoiding an Establishment Clause violation trumps Peloza’s
right to free speech.” 50 The court supported this finding by noting that Peloza,
“whether . . . in the classroom or outside of it during contract time, . . . is not just
any ordinary citizen. He is a teacher.” 51 Because of his respected position, there
is an increased likelihood that high school students will equate his views with
those of the school.52 Discussing his religious beliefs with students during school
time on school grounds “would flunk all three parts of the test articulated in
39. Harper, 445 F.3d at 1197 (Kozinski, J., dissenting).
40. 37 F.3d 517 (9th Cir. 1994).
41. Id. at 519.
43. Id. at 520.
44. Id. at 521.
48. Id. at 522.
504 INDIANA LAW REVIEW [Vol. 40:499
Lemon v. Kurtzman.” 53
V. C URRICULUM
In Fleischfresser v. Directors of School District 200,54 the plaintiffs sought
to prevent the elementary school from using the Impressions reading series as the
main supplemental reading program in grades K-5, contending the series violated
the First Amendment’s Establishment Clause by promoting “wizards, sorcerers,
giants and unspecified creatures with supernatural powers,” thus indoctrinating
children in anti-Christian values. 55 The Seventh Circuit upheld the district court’s
dismissal of the action through summary judgment for the school district. The
Seventh Circuit reiterated that schools have broad discretion in selecting
curriculum, and courts should only interfere where constitutional values are
“directly and sharply implicate[d].” 56 In this case, the plaintiffs failed to
demonstrate that any coherent “religion” was being promoted even accepting the
argument that the reading series contained concepts found in “paganism and
branches of witchcraft and satanism.”57 A K-5 reading series should serve to
stimulate a child’s imagination, intellect, and emotions. Expanding children’s
minds and developing their sense of creativity is not an “impermissible
establishment of pagan religion.” 58 Works cited by the court included C.S. Lewis,
A.A. Milne, Dr. Suess, Ray Bradbury, L. Frank Baum, and Maurice Sendak.59
The court also rejected the plaintiffs’ assertions that stories with witches, goblins
and Halloween violated the Establishment Clause, holding instead that Halloween
is an “American tradition” and is a purely secular affair.60 The court also noted
that the reading series contains stories based upon Christian beliefs, but any
“religious references are secondary, if not trivial” when the overall purpose of the
reading series is considered.61
Similar to Fleischfresser, in Brown v. Woodland Joint Unified School
District,62 the plaintiffs attacked the Impressions reading series as violating the
First Amendment’s Establishment Clause by promoting “religion” while violating
plaintiffs’ right to free exercise of their own beliefs.63 The plaintiffs challenged
thirty-two of the selections, contending these selections promoted the religion of
53. Id. (citation omitted); see infra Part VIII for a discussion of the Lemon test.
54. 15 F.3d 680 (7th Cir. 1994).
55. Id. at 683. Impressions is a series of fifty-nine books with approximately 10,000 literary
selections reflecting a broad range of North American cultures and traditions.
56. Id. at 686.
57. Id. at 687.
58. Id. at 688.
60. Id. at 688 n.8.
61. Id. at 689.
62. 27 F.3d 1373 (9th Cir. 1994).
63. Id. at 1376.
2007] PARADOX OF INCLUSION BY EXCLUSION 505
“Wicca” (witchcraft). 64 The selections do refer to witches and some related
classroom activities include pretending one is a witch or sorcerer and creating a
poetic chant.65 In affirming the district court’s summary judgment in favor of the
school district, the Ninth Circuit Court of Appeals viewed favorably the school
district’s review committee, which was established following complaints from
parents.66 The review committee included a Christian minister. 67 The review
committee found no connection between the reading series and the occult.68
Citing the Seventh Circuit, the court noted the Impressions reading series was
developed to serve a secular purpose related to the education of elementary
school children and was not designed to promote any religion, although certain
selections involving faith traditions and folklore in America are a part of the
series, including selections involving the Christian faith.69 Coincidental
resemblance to certain religious practices does not amount to a constitutional
violation. 70 The court also rejected the plaintiffs’ assertion that the challenged
selections are designed “through the use of neuro-linguistic programming” to
“foster and promote” a “magical world view that renders children susceptible to
future control by occult groups” and make them “more likely to become involved
in occult practices later in their lives.” 71
VI. H ARRY P OTTER
Fleischfresser and Brown were decided before the British boy-wizard Harry
Potter appeared. Counts v. Cedarville School District72 involved the boy-wizard
Harry Potter, whose exploits at Hogwarts School of Witchcraft and Wizardry are
central to the six published novels by J.K. Rowling and four feature films.
The Harry Potter series has been something of a publishing phenomenon,
with hundreds of millions of copies published worldwide in sixty-three
languages.73 Not surprising, a number of public school libraries contain the
books. Also not surprising, there are those who wish to ban or restrict access to
the books because of a belief that the books promote unwholesome activities
(magic spells, disrespect for authority, deceit) as well as pagan religions and
Counts began when a parent expressed objections to her pastor regarding the
presence of Harry Potter books in the school library.74 Her pastor was also one
66. Id. at 1384.
67. Id. at 1377.
69. Id. at 1381.
71. Id. at 1382.
72. 295 F. Supp. 2d 996 (W.D. Ark. 2003).
73. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harry_Potter (last visited June 8, 2007).
74. Counts, 295 F. Supp. at 1000-01.
506 INDIANA LAW REVIEW [Vol. 40:499
of the five school board members.75 She was notably concerned with Harry
Potter and the Sorcerer’s Stone. 76 A fifteen-member Library Committee was
formed to review her request to have this book withdrawn from all students.77
The Library Committee voted unanimously in favor of keeping the book in
circulation without restriction.78 The school board, however, voted 3-2 to restrict
access to the Harry Potter books to those students who had a signed permission
statement from their parents or guardians. 79 Of the three school board members
who voted to restrict access, two had never read a Harry Potter book and the third
had read only one (the aforementioned Sorcerer’s Stone). 80 They did not believe
the books contained any profanity, sexuality, obscenity, or perversion, nor did
they express any concern the books had actually led to disruption in the school
district.81 They did believe the books “might promote disobedience and
disrespect for authority,” and they were concerned the books dealt with
“witchcraft” and “the occult.” 82 The pastor-member, who had read one of the
books, testified that he believed the books would “create . . . anarchy” at the
schools and that restriction was a “preventative measure” necessary “to prevent
any signs that will come up like Columbine and Jonesboro.” 83 The court stated
the issue to be decided: “Does a school board’s decision–to restrict access to
library books only to those with parental permission–infringe upon the First
Amendment rights of a student who has such permission?” 84
The court noted that the restrictions placed on access to the Harry Potter
books had a “stigmatizing effect” that constituted “a restriction on access.” 85
Unless the school board could justify such restrictions, “they amount to
impermissible infringements of First Amendment rights.” 86
The court cited to (and quoted extensively from) Tinker v. Des Moines
Independent Community School District:87
In our system, state-operated schools may not be enclaves of
totalitarianism. School officials do not possess absolute authority over
75. Id. at 1001.
76. Ironically, the original title of this book (as released in the United Kingdom) was Harry
Potter and the Philosopher’s Stone. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harry_Potter_and_the_
Philosophers_Stone (last visited June 8, 2007). Although this is a more direct reference to alchemy,
the school patron was upset with the references to “witchcraft.” Counts, 295 F. Supp. 2d at 1004.
77. This type of ad hoc committee approach was viewed with favor in Brown.
78. Counts, 295 F. Supp. 2d at 1001.
81. Id. at 1000-01.
82. Id. at 1002.
83. Id. at 1003.
84. Id. at 1001-02.
85. Id. at 1002.
87. 393 U.S. 503, 511 (1969).
2007] PARADOX OF INCLUSION BY EXCLUSION 507
their students. Students in school as well as out of school are “persons”
under our Constitution. They are possessed of fundamental rights which
the State must respect, just as they themselves must respect their
obligations to the State. In our system, students may not be regarded as
closed-circuit recipients of only that which the State chooses to
communicate. They may not be confined to the expression of those
sentiments that are officially approved. In the absence of a specific
showing of constitutionally valid reason to regulate their speech, students
are entitled to freedom of expression of their views.88
The restrictions, to be justified, must be necessary to avoid material and
substantial interference with schoolwork or discipline. 89 The three board
members, however, were not aware of
any actual disobedience or disrespect that had flowed from a reading of
the Harry Potter books. Their concerns are, therefore, speculative. Such
speculative apprehensions of possible disturbance are not sufficient to
justify the extreme sanction of restricting the free exercise of First
Amendment rights in a public school library.90
The court was likewise not persuaded that the Harry Potter series promoted
a “religion.” All three members testified that they believed the series promoted
“witchcraft religion,” but one testified that if the books “promoted Christianity,”
he would not object to them. 91 Notwithstanding their personal distaste for
“witchcraft religion,” the court wrote, “it is not properly within their power and
authority as members of defendant’s school board to prevent the students at
Cedarville from reading about it.”92 Accordingly, plaintiffs’ Motion for Summary
Judgment was granted. The school district was enjoined and directed to return
the books to the library shelves without any restrictions.93
VII. G OOD F RIDAY AND C HRISTMAS
In Cammack v. Waihee,94 a case involving Hawai’i’s observance of Good
Friday, the Ninth Circuit discussed the problem of “political divisiveness” where
minority faith traditions or non-religious persons or entities militate for official
88. Counts, 295 F. Supp. 2d at 1002-03.
89. Id. at 1003.
90. Id. at 1004.
92. Id. (citing Island Trees Union Free Sch. Dist. No. 26 v. Pico, 457 U.S. 853, 872 (1982)
(involving a school board sought to remove library books it considered, in part, to be anti-Christian
and the court stated “In brief, we hold that local school boards may not remove books from school
library shelves simply because they dislike the ideas contained in those books and seek by their
removal to ‘prescribe what shall be orthodox in politics, nationalism, religion, or other matters of
93. Id. at 1005.
94. 932 F.2d 765 (9th Cir. 1991).
508 INDIANA LAW REVIEW [Vol. 40:499
recognition of days or periods of time important to them. 95 Public schools find
themselves between those who would sanitize the public schools of any religious
studies or references and those who wish to use the public schools as a means to
promote denominational and theological preference. While the latter
circumstance has been well litigated, the “sanitization” cases have not. But it
seems evident from U.S. Supreme Court decisions that any “relentless and all
pervasive attempt to exclude religion from every aspect of public life could itself
become inconsistent with the Constitution” as evincing hostility towards religion,
which is as much proscribed as endorsement.96 The following two cases illustrate
positive approaches to balancing the religious and cultural diversity of the
American population while satisfying constitutional requirements.
In Florey v. Sioux Falls District 49-5,97 in response to complaints that
Christmastime assemblies were religious exercises, the school board established
a broad-based committee of citizens to review the school district’s practices in
light of constitutional requirements.98 The committee’s eventual report to the
school board delineated permissible school activity but also recommended a
policy to promote understanding and tolerance of various faith traditions while
remaining neutral toward religion and non-religion.99 The school board adopted
the policy, recognizing that one of the school district’s goals “is to advance the
students’ knowledge and appreciation of the role that our religious heritage has
played in the social, cultural and historical development of civilization.” 100 To
implement this policy, the school board arranged the school calendar so as not to
conflict with religious observances and to incorporate “the teaching about and not
of religion . . . in a factual, objective and respectful manner.” 101 Religious themes
in the arts, literature, history, music, and drama were permitted if “presented in
a prudent and objective manner.” 102 Religious symbols, such as a cross, a
crescent, and a Star of David were “permitted as a teaching aid or resource
provided such symbols are displayed as an example of the cultural and religious
heritage of the holiday and are temporary in nature.” 103
The district court refused to enjoin the implementation of the policy, and the
Eighth Circuit Court of Appeals affirmed. The appellate court noted “[t]he close
95. “Political divisiveness” has been raised in Establishment Clause cases as an argument that
to permit the challenged activity to continue would provoke political battles and divide the
community. The U.S. Supreme Court has not determined a constitutional infringement based upon
“political divisiveness” alone but has required a showing of “a direct subsidy to religious schools
or colleges” in order to warrant inquiry into “political divisiveness.” Lynch v. Donnelly, 465 U.S.
668, 684 (1984).
96. Lee v. Weisman, 505 U.S. 577, 589 (1992).
97. 619 F.2d 1311 (8th Cir. 1980).
98. Id. at 1313.
100. Id. at 1319.
101. Id. at 1320.
102. Id. at 1319.
103. Id. at 1319-20.
2007] PARADOX OF INCLUSION BY EXCLUSION 509
relationship between religion and American history and culture,” and that “total
separation [between church and state] is not possible in an absolute sense.” 104
The court found the policy to be neutral and “not promulgated with the intent to
serve a religious purpose.” 105 Religious symbols were used only as teaching aids
and resources and were displayed only temporarily.
We view the thrust of these rules to be the advancement of the students’
knowledge of society’s cultural and religious heritage, as well as the
provision of an opportunity for students to perform a full range of music,
poetry and drama that is likely to be of interest to the students and their
The Court likewise did not find that the primary effect was to advance or inhibit
religion. “The First Amendment does not forbid all mention of religion in public
schools; it is the advancement or inhibition of religion that is prohibited.” 107 The
study of religion, when objectively presented as part of a secular program of
education, is not forbidden.108 The court expanded upon the concept of “study”
to mean not only classroom instruction but public performances as well (but not
religious ceremonies). 109 The fact that some people may be affected by religious
references in a secular course of study does not invalidate the inclusion of such
references. “It would be literally impossible to develop a public school
curriculum that did not in some way affect the religious or nonreligious
sensibilities of some of the students or their parents.” 110 In addition, “[t]he public
schools are not required to delete from the curriculum all materials that may
offend any religious sensibility.” 111
Clever v. Cherry Hill Township Board of Education 112 is a case that involved
school officials removing a Nativity display from a bulletin board in one of its
elementary schools in December 1991.113 This resulted in a significant brouhaha.
The school board formed a “Seasonal Observance Committee,” which, as in
Florey, reported back to the school board with several recommendations for
including cultural, ethnic, or religious themes in the school’s educational
programs.114 The school board adopted the recommendations as policy and
developed procedures to “foster mutual understanding and respect for the rights
of all individuals regarding their beliefs, values, and customs.” 115 The school
104. Id. at 1313-14 (citation omitted).
105. Id. at 1314.
107. Id. at 1315 (emphasis added).
109. Id. at 1316.
110. Id. at 1317.
111. Id. at 1318.
112. 838 F. Supp. 929 (D.N.J. 1993).
113. Id. at 934.
115. Id. at 932.
510 INDIANA LAW REVIEW [Vol. 40:499
board added: “Programs which teach about religion and its role in the social and
historical development of civilization and in the social and political context of
world events do not violate the religious neutrality of public schools. Schools
may teach about but not promote religion.” 116 Although the school board relied
heavily upon Florey, it did not restrict its curricular objectives to holidays that
had both religious and secular relevancy.117 The school board broadened the use
of religious symbols by including these in school calendars along with secular
holidays. 118 Appropriate seasonal displays were also permitted, but were
restricted to no more than ten days.119
Cherry Hill’s policy also mandates that the calendars be used in
conjunction with a list of books and other resource materials available in
the school library relating to holidays identified in the calendar.
Teachers are provided with descriptions of each holiday to “be utilized
by staff members as an educational resource throughout the school
The school board’s primary purpose was “to promote the educational goal of
advancing student knowledge about our cultural, ethnic, and religious heritage
and diversity.” 121
The federal district court, in granting summary judgment to the school board,
found: (1) the context within which the religious and secular symbols are
employed does not endorse any religion; (2) the displays are curriculum-related
and are not permanent; (3) there is no “overt religious exercise” associated with
the policy, and thus no religious coercion; (4) there is no denominational
preference; (5) there is no denominational hostility; (6) the policy “has a genuine
and demonstrable secular purpose”; (7) the “primary effect” of the policy does
not endorse any particular religion nor favor religion over non-religion; and (8)
the policy and its procedures do not “unduly entangle the government in state-
church relationships.” 122
The court also observed:
Religion is a pervasive and enduring human phenomenon which is
an appropriate, if not desirable, subject of secular study. It is hard to
imagine how such study can be undertaken without exposing students to
the religious doctrines and symbols of others.
117. Id. at 934.
120. Id. at 933.
121. Id. at 934.
122. Id. at 939-40, 942.
2007] PARADOX OF INCLUSION BY EXCLUSION 511
. . . We learn this lesson [mutual understanding, respect, and
tolerance] not by being offended or threatened by the religious symbols
of others, but by understanding the meaning of those symbols and why
they have the capacity to inspire intense emotions. If our public schools
cannot teach this mutual understanding and respect, it is hard to envision
another societal institution that could do the job effectively. 123
The court’s decision is not only well written but included seven exhibits detailing
the school board’s policies, its procedures, its guidelines, a compilation of
religious symbols, two calendar months from the school calendar, and
explanatory text to guide teachers in explaining the symbols.124
VIII. T HE S TUDY OF ISLAM
The U.S. Supreme Court has not banned instruction concerning religion in
public schools. In School District of Abington Township v. Schempp,125 the Court
noted that “it might well be said that one’s education is not complete without a
study of comparative religion or the history of religion and its relationship to the
advancement of civilization.” 126
This is often stated in more simplified terms: Public schools can teach about
religion rather than teach religion. Crossing the line can result in litigation
claiming the challenged practice violates the First Amendment’s religion clauses.
However the concept may be phrased, the social sensitivities of the times may
result in litigation to prevent or challenge the teaching about certain faith
traditions. The tragic events of September 11, 2001 and subsequent hostilities
have made the teaching about Islam a sensitive matter. Not surprisingly, there
has been litigation.
In Eklund v. Byron Union School District,127 the plaintiffs challenged the
middle school curriculum that involved the use of a role-playing game to teach
seventh grade students about Islam. 128 Plaintiffs claimed the school’s methods
violated the Establishment Clause of the First Amendment.
The California State Board of Education required seventh grade world history
classes to include a unit on Islamic history, culture, and religion.129 There was an
approved textbook–Across the Centuries–which the school district employed, but
the teachers were encouraged to use other instructional methods they believed
would enhance their students’ understanding of the unit.130 Some teachers used
an interactive module called “Islam: A Simulation of Islamic History and
Culture,” which uses a variety of role-playing activities to engage students in
123. Id. at 939.
124. Id. at 942-50.
125. 374 U.S. 203, 225 (1963).
127. No. C02-3004 PJH, 2003 U.S. Dist. LEXIS 27152 (N.D. Cal. 2003).
128. Id. at *2.
129. Id. at *3.
130. Id. at *3-4.
512 INDIANA LAW REVIEW [Vol. 40:499
situations approximating the Five Pillars of Islam, the elements of faith in the
Students were encouraged but not required to choose a M uslim name to
facilitate the role-playing.132 For the first two Pillars of Islam, the teacher read
Muslim prayers and portions of the Qur’an aloud in class.133 Student groups
recited a line from a Muslim prayer, such as “In the name of God, Most Gracious,
Most Merciful” as they left class.134 Students also made group posters.135 Some
banners had quotations from the Qur’an, both in Arabic and English, although
this was not required.136
For the third and fourth Pillars, students were encouraged to give up things
for a day, such as watching television or eating candy, to demonstrate the fasting
associated with Ramadan.137 Students were also encouraged to perform volunteer
community service, mostly around the school, as a means of demonstrating the
charity aspect of Zakaat.138 In all, these four activities took about a week in the
For the fifth Pillar–Hajj, the pilgrimage to Mecca–the teacher had the
students participate in a board game called “Race to Makkah.” 140 Students used
their knowledge of Islam to advance on the board, with the goal of the game to
reach “Mecca.” 141 Cards were used that expressed certain elements of the Muslim
faith, with three categories to choose from (“trivia,” “truth,” or “fact”).142 The
teacher indicated the statements were expressions of what Muslims believed and
were not actual historical fact. 143 The teacher also permitted students to dress in
Arabic garb for class presentations.144
As a part of the final, the teacher required the students to write an essay
critiquing elements of Islamic culture, albeit with the following caveat: “BE
CAREFUL HERE–if you do not have something positive to say, don’t say
anything!!!” 145 The final followed the events of September 11, 2001, and the
131. Id. at *1-4. The Five Pillars of Islam are Shahada (profession of faith in God); Salaat
(prayer five times a day); Ramadan (ritual fasting from dawn to dusk during the month of
Ramadan); Zakaat (charity); and Hajj (pilgrimage to Mecca).
132. Id. at *6.
133. Id. at *7.
137. Id. at *7-8.
138. Id. at *8.
139. Id. During the time of the events at issue, the tragic events of September 11, 2001
occurred. The class spent a week discussing the attacks in the context of world history. Id. at *5.
140. Id. at *8.
141. Id. at *8-9.
142. Id. at *9.
145. Id. at *10.
2007] PARADOX OF INCLUSION BY EXCLUSION 513
teacher was concerned the students might “express racist remarks” rather than
attend to the objectives of the unit on Islam.146
Other world history units also used role-playing. Some units also addressed
religious themes, such as the rise of Christianity after the fall of the Roman
Empire and the role of Buddhism in Chinese culture.147
Although the plaintiffs’ son had participated in the Islam module when he
was in seventh grade, his sister was allowed to “opt out” of the unit at the parents’
request.148 The plaintiffs’ daughter was provided an alternate assignment (the
French Revolution) while the rest of the class participated in the Islam unit.149
The school moved for summary judgment. The federal district court judge
noted that the Supreme Court has fashioned three separate but interrelated tests
for analyzing Establishment Clause disputes:150 the Lemon test, 151 the Lynch
endorsement test,152 and the Lee test.153 The court also noted that “[a]s an initial
matter, the Supreme Court has held that the public schools bear the responsibility
of educating their students about the history and cultures of other countries,
which often must include a discussion of religion as well.” 154 “The history of
man is inseparable from the history of religion.” 155 The plaintiffs argued the role-
playing games constituted the practice of Islam and the school district’s use of the
Islam simulation module constituted an impermissible endorsement of the Islam
Under the Lee test or “Coercion Test,” the Establishment Clause is violated
where a school coerces students into participating in religious activities.
“Coercion” can include “subtle and indirect pressure, such as social pressure from
147. Id. at *10-12.
148. Id. at *12.
149. Id. at *12-13.
150. Id. at *14-16.
151. Lemon v. Kurtzman, 403 U.S. 602, 612-13 (1971). The government action at issue must
(1) have a secular purpose; (2) not have the principal or primary effect of advancing or inhibiting
religion; and (3) not foster excessive government entanglement with religion. Id. at 612.
152. Lynch v. Donnelly, 465 U.S. 668, 688 (1984) (O’Connor, J., concurring). The Lynch
endorsement is somewhat a clarification or refinement of the “excessive entanglement” prong of
Lemon. Under the endorsement test, the question is whether the challenged practice “sends a
message to nonadherents that they are outsiders, not full members of the political community, and
an accompanying message to adherents that they are insiders, favored members of the political
153. Lee v. Weisman, 505 U.S. 577 (1992). This test is also known as the “coercion test.”
“[A]t a minimum, the Constitution guarantees that government may not coerce anyone to support
or participate in religion or its exercise, or otherwise to act in a way which ‘establishes a [state]
religion or religious faith, or tends to do so.’” Id. at 587.
154. Eklund v. Byron Union Sch. Dist., No. C02-3004 PJH, 2003 U.S. Dist. LEXIS 27152,
at *19 (N.D. Cal. 2003).
155. Id. at *19-20 (quoting Engel v. Vitale, 370 U.S. 421, 434 (1962)).
156. Id. at *21.
514 INDIANA LAW REVIEW [Vol. 40:499
peers to conform to school-set norms, . . . even if students are otherwise free to
opt out of the unit.” 157 The school district argued that, as a threshold matter, the
Establishment Clause could not be violated because the role-playing activities at
issue were not “religious” activities.158
The court found that an objective review of the circumstances led to the
conclusion the students at the middle school “[c]annot be considered to have
performed any actual religious activities in their seventh grade world history
class.” 159 The students did not perform the actual Five Pillars of Faith. They did
not proclaim faith in one God or belief in Muhammad as His prophet, did not
pray five times a day, did not fast for a month, did not make charitable donations,
and did not travel to Mecca.160 “Instead, the students participated in activities
which, while analogous to those pillars of faith, were not actually the Islamic
religious rites.” 161 Role-playing activities do not constitute the actual practice of
a religion and do not violate the Establishment Clause.162 “In addition, there is
no evidence that the students performed these classroom activities with any
devotional or religious intent.” 163 The subjective lack of spiritual intent
demonstrates the activities in question could not objectively be considered
“religious activity” for the purposes of Lee.164
The plaintiffs countered that should the court find the role-playing activities
did not constitute a “religious activity,” the module nonetheless had the effect of
advancing or endorsing the Islam religion, failing both the Lemon and the Lynch
tests.165 The court agreed that the Islam module would be unconstitutional under
both Lemon and Lynch should the role-playing activities have the primary effect
of either endorsing or disapproving of any religion.166
Upon an objective review of the situation at hand, the students would
not reasonably have understood the module to have endorsed Islam over
other religions merely because of the role-playing activities at issue. As
a matter of law, “a practice’s mere consistency with or coincidental
resemblance to a religious practice does not have the primary effect of
endorsing religion.” Thus, the mere fact that the Islam role-playing
module involved approximations of Islamic religious acts is not
sufficient to create an endorsement of the Islamic faith.167
157. Id. (citing Lee, 505 U.S. at 592-94).
159. Id. at *22.
160. Id. at *23.
162. Id. at *24.
163. Id. at *25.
164. Id. at *26.
165. Id. at *27.
167. Id. at *29 (citation omitted) (quoting Brown v. Woodland Joint Unified Sch. Dist., 27
F.3d 1373, 1381 (9th Cir. 1994) (holding role-playing witchcraft rituals not an endorsement of
2007] PARADOX OF INCLUSION BY EXCLUSION 515
A reasonable student could not have believed the activities constituted an
endorsement of religion. Students at the middle school participated in a number
of role-playing activities for purely educational reasons and were exposed to a
number of different religions.168 “Given these facts, an objective review of the
activities in question does not result in a finding of an endorsement of Islam.” 169
In addition, the use of the Islam module was motivated by a purely secular
purpose: to instruct the students in world history regarding the history, culture,
and religion of Islam.170 “[E]ven quasi-religious role-play is permissible if it does
not objectively endorse one religion over another.” 171
The judge was not swayed by the plaintiffs’ claim that the banners violated
the Establishment Clause, drawing an analogy to the display of the Ten
Commandments. The court added that the display of the banners was not for the
primary purpose of endorsing a religion,172 as the display of the Ten
Commandments was in Stone v. Graham. 173 The court was likewise not
persuaded by the plaintiffs’ objections to the “Race to Makkah” trivia game and
its cards that quizzed students on information they had learned during the Islam
module. Given the context in which the cards were used, an objective observer
could not conclude the cards endorsed Islam. 174 In addition, the teacher’s
cautionary note prior to the final examination could not reasonably be construed
as endorsement of Islam.175 The school district was granted summary
Plaintiffs appealed to the U.S. Court of Appeals for the Ninth Circuit. In a
terse opinion, the Ninth Circuit summarily affirmed the decision of the federal
district court judge.177 On May 31, 2006, the Plaintiffs filed for a writ of
certiorari with the U.S. Supreme Court. The Supreme Court denied the writ on
October 2, 2006.178
168. Id. at *30.
171. Id. at *31.
173. 449 U.S. 39, 41 (1980).
174. Eklund, 2003 U.S. Dist. LEXIS 27152 at *33-36.
175. Id. at *36-37.
176. Id. at *42.
177. See Eklund v. Byron Union Sch. Dist., 154 Fed. Appx. 648 (9th Cir. 2005).
178. Eklund v. Byron Union Sch. Dist., 127 S. Ct. 86 (2006). For a similar post-secondary
dispute, see Yacovelli v. Moeser, 324 F. Supp. 2d 760 (M.D.N.C. 2004) (granting the University
of North Carolina at Chapel Hill’s Motion to Dismiss the plaintiffs’ complaint that the university’s
orientation program—which required incoming freshmen to read and discuss a book on Islam, with
alternatives for those who objected to the exercise—violated the First Amendment’s Free Exercise
516 INDIANA LAW REVIEW [Vol. 40:499
IX. R ECOMMENDATIONS
Describing a phenomenon is only a first step. It would be a mistake to
dismiss the perception of anti-Christianity within the public schools as the
opinions of fringe elements. As is evident in a number of the reported cases
above—notably the dissenting opinions in the Ninth Circuit’s Harper decision
(T-shirt with religious messages describing homosexuality as sinful)—there are
a number of judges who believe the balance has shifted such that public school
policies militate against religious expression of students, especially Christian
expression, in favor of a “religion of secularism,” a type of hostility that should
fun afoul of Supreme Court guidance.
The approaches by the school districts in Brown v. Woodland Joint Unified
School District179 (challenge to the Impressions reading series), Counts v.
Cedarville School District180 (Harry Potter), Florey v. Sioux Falls District 49-5 181
(incorporation of religious symbols in instruction as means of increasing student
knowledge, appreciation, and respect for the role of religion and faith traditions),
and Clever v. Cherry Hill Township Board of Education 182 (similar to Florey,
with the development of a calendar and related library references that provided
additional information on important religious and secular observances throughout
the year)183 involved representatives of the respective school communities who
received and acted upon concerns and complaints from other community
members. The committees were composed of a cross-section of the community
and were thus representative.184 The courts have looked favorably upon this
approach because it creates a forum for those who believe themselves to be
marginalized or disenfranchised with the opportunity to be heard.
A greater concern is with the evolution of Establishment Clause defense
strategies, especially in attempts to justify restrictions on religious speech of
students, including student symbolic speech. In addition to the “political
divisiveness” argument addressed above, there is also an emerging defense
strategy that would permit restriction on student speech so as to avoid potential
Establishment Clause violations. Under this latter strategy, viewpoint
discrimination by a governmental entity (i.e., a public school district) may be
justified where necessary to avoid an Establishment Clause violation. The U.S.
Supreme Court has not explicitly accepted this defense, although it did
acknowledge its existence—without ruling on it—in Good News Club v. Milford
Central School, 185 where the Court stated: “[I]t is not clear whether a State’s
interest in avoiding an Establishment Clause violation would justify viewpoint
179. 27 F.3d 1373 (9th Cir. 1994).
180. 295 F. Supp. 2d 996 (W.D. Ark. 2003).
181. 619 F.2d 1311 (8th Cir. 1980).
182. 838 F. Supp. 929 (D.N.J. 1993).
183. Id. at 933-34.
184. Id. at 932.
185. 533 U.S. 98, 112-13 (2001).
2007] PARADOX OF INCLUSION BY EXCLUSION 517
Permitting a governmental entity to avoid addressing the accommodation of
religion through viewpoint discrimination based on an alleged Establishment
Clause violation would be a disservice to all public school constituents. Such a
defense strategy, if successful, would do nothing to allay the concerns of those
who perceive the public schools to be hostile to their faith tradition. It would, in
fact, tend to reinforce this perception. The resolution of this phenomenon
depends upon direct engagement, no matter how unpleasant this might be. To do
otherwise would be to abandon the essential teaching function of our public
186. Id. at 113.