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Sacred Mountains and Pilgrimage traditions of China
by Martin Gray
Since prehistoric times sacred places have exerted a mysterious attraction on billions of people around the world. Ancient legends and modern day reports tell of extraordinary things that have happened to people while visiting these places. Different sacred sites have the power to heal the body, enlighten the mind, increase creativity, develop psychic abilities, and awaken the soul to a knowing of its true purpose in life. While contemporary science cannot explain - and therefore disregards - the seemingly miraculous phenomena that occurs at the holy places, they continue to be the most venerated and visited locations on planet earth. What is the key to the mystery of the sacred sites and how are we to explain their power?
Searching for answers to these questions, I have spent eighteen years
visiting and studying more than 1000 holy and magical places in 80
countries. In 1996, I spent several months traveling overland to dozens of
sacred mountains and pilgrimage temples in China.
With accurate historical records of events that occurred over three
thousand years ago, China has some of the oldest recorded history of any
country on earth. It is from the legendary era however, long before
historical records were compiled, that we find the first mention of sacred
mountains in China. Why were certain mountains believed to be sacred?
Perhaps the most primitive reason was the belief that mountains,
especially the tallest ones, were pillars separating heaven from earth.
According to one ancient Chinese cosmology, the realm of heaven covered
the realm of earth and from this belief arose the idea that heaven could
fall down if not supported. The mountains were believed to perform this
function. In the myth of the 'Reparation of Heaven', the Goddess Nu Wa,
having repaired the broken sky, killed a huge turtle and erected its four
feet as supporting pillars in the four quarters. These four pillars
allowed the world to again enjoy a peaceful and harmonious life, and later
came to be regarded as the earliest sacred mountains.
Another reason for the sanctification of particular mountains are the
legends and myths of both shamanism and early Taoism. These legends speak
of sages and mystics, often called 'immortals', who lived deep in the
mountain wilderness, existed on diets of rare herbs and exotic elixirs,
and lived to be 400 to 800 years old. The mountain areas where these sages
dwelled came to be regarded as sacred places, as access points to the
heavenly realm, and also as the abodes of magical spirits and powerful
deities (in the Chinese context a sacred mountain can mean a single peak,
a cluster of hills, or a whole mountain range).
The Shu-ching, a classic of traditional history compiled around the
fifth century B.C., mentions how the ruler Shun (2255-2206BC) went every
five years on a pilgrimage to the four mountains that defined the limits
of his realm. Offering a sacrifice on the summit of each mountain, he
began a tradition that has lasted to the present age (it is interesting to
note that the Chinese phrase for pilgrimage - ch' ao-shan chin-hsiang -
means 'paying one's respect to a mountain'). While only one of these
mountains, Tai Shan (originally called Tai Tsung), was referred to by name
in the Shu-ching, from other sources we learn that the following five
mountains were highly venerated by the Taoists in ancient times:
These mountains were not, however, the only or even the most important
of the Taoist sacred peaks. Writing in Pilgrims and Sacred Sites in China
(1), John Lagerwey comments: "A note on what is meant by "Taoist mountain"
is perhaps in order here. It is traditional to regard the Five Peaks (wu-yueh)
as Taoist, in contrast with the "four most famous (Buddhist) mountains" (ssu-ta
ming shan). While both history and cosmology can be called on to justify
this identification of the Five Peaks with Taoism, these mountains already
constituted a distinct group in the Former Han dynasty before Taoism had
taken on an organized ecclesiastical form, and it is only from the late
sixth century on that Taoists made a concerted effort to claim these
mountains as theirs. The Taoists were never entirely successful in
pressing this claim, and of the five only Hua Shan and T'ai Shan, albeit
in a very different manner, play a significant and ongoing role in Taoist
religious history. Perhaps even more to the point, even these two
mountains are nowhere near as important to Taoist history as are such
mountains as Mao Shan and Lung-hu Shan, centers, respectively, of
Shang-ch'ing and Cheng-i Taoism. Together with Ko-tsao Shan (in Kiangsi),
the ordination center of Ling-pao Taoism, these mountains constituted the
"tripod" on which officially recognized forms of Taoism rested from the
early twelfth century on."
In the 1st century A.D. merchants returning from India via the Silk
Route began the introduction of Buddhism into China. Over the next few
centuries, adventurous Chinese pilgrims traveled to India to visit the
sacred places of the Buddha’s life. The most famous such pilgrim was
Hsuan-tsang (596-664), the Tripitaka Master, who spent sixteen years in
India. These pilgrims returned to China with translations of Buddhist
texts and, equally important, an affinity for the Buddhist tradition of
monastic life. Like Taoist hermits, the Buddhists monks favored quiet
mountains and deep forests for their meditative practices. Small
hermitages and later great monastic complexes sprung up at many peaks
(some previously held sacred by the Taoists) and over the centuries the
Buddhists began to regard four peaks as having primary sanctity:
Each of the Buddhist sacred mountains is considered to be the dwelling place of a Bodhisattva. These particular Bodhisattvas are mythological spiritual beings that have dedicated themselves to the service of assisting all sentient creatures in the transcendence of worldly suffering and the attainment of enlightenment. These Buddhist Mountains and the Taoist peaks listed above became the primary pilgrimage destinations of both China's masses and also the ruling elite. Over many centuries the monastic centers developed into great centers of scholarship, art and philosophy, with hundreds of temples and thousands of monks and nuns. This extraordinary way of life continued unbroken until the Communist Revolution of 1949. During the 'Great Leap Forward' in the 1950's and the 'Cultural Revolution' of the 1960's, both Buddhism and Taoism were brutally suppressed and more than 90% of China's temples and great cultural artifacts were completely destroyed. Since the 1980's the Communist apparatus has taken less a destructive approach to religious culture and both Buddhism and Taoism are reviving. Some of the monasteries and temples have been reconstructed but, sadly, much of the reconstruction work is poorly done and lacking in the artistic beauty.
Stairway to Heaven, Pilgrims ascending sacred Mount
Tai Shan is not merely the mountain home of the Gods such as Mt.
Olympus or Mt. Sinai; it is considered a deity itself and has been
venerated by the Chinese as their most sacred peak since at least the
third millennium B.C. The emperors of ancient China regarded Tai Shan as
the actual son of the Emperor of Heaven, from whom they received their own
authority to rule the people. The mountain functioned as a God who looked
after the affairs of humans and who also acted as a communication channel
for humans to speak to God. Seventy-two legendary emperors are said to
have come to Tai Shan, but the first known evidence dates from a rock
carving left on the mountain in 219B.C. by Emperor Shih-huang who is
remembered for having begun construction of the Great Wall. Historical
record tells of the enormous retinues that would accompany an emperor on
his pilgrimage to Tai Shan, lines of people might stretch from the bottom
to the top of the mountain, a distance of over six miles. Besides royalty,
artists and poets have also favored the holy peak. The walls lining the
path up the mountain are covered with poems and tributes carved in stone,
proclaiming the importance and beauty of the surroundings. Confucius and
the poet Dufu both wrote poems expressing their respect, and legend tell
that those who climb the mountain will live until they are one hundred
Over 7000 steps lead to the summit, and the slopes are dotted with
numerous temples, inns, small restaurants and shops for the millions of
annual pilgrims. Two important temples are situated at the top of the
peak; the Temple of the Jade Emperor, the heavenly ruler of this world;
and the Bixia, the Temple of the Princess of the Azure Clouds, the
daughter of the Jade Emperor. The temple of the Princess is perhaps the
preeminent place of pilgrimage for Chinese women. Thousands make the long
climb each day, and occasionally one will still see very old women with
the tiny, bound feet of pre-communist times. Mothers whose daughters have
been unable to conceive come to pray for grandchildren, and two attendant
goddesses standing next to the Princess are miracle working images, one
for curing eye ailments, the other for children' diseases.
The rigors of pilgrimage. Scaling sacred Mt. Hua Shan.
The five peaks of Hua Shan are thought to resemble a five petalled flower hence its common name, the ‘Flowery Mountain.’ Originally it was called Xiyue - meaning ‘Western mountain’ - because it was the westernmost of the five Taoist peaks. A tortuous 15 kilometer stepped path leads to the Green Dragon Ridge (Bilong ji) where other trails lead to the major peaks. Of the five peaks, the southernmost (2,100 meters) is the highest, closely followed by those in the east and west. Formerly the five mountains were dotted with temples but now few remain. Today Hua Shan is a popular hiking destination for Chinese youth on vacation but the mountain routes are still trekked by devoted pilgrims and wandering monks. In order to reach certain temples and the caves of the sages great courage is needed. Pilgrims must scale cliffs with only a linked chain for support and to fall is certain death. These routes have been given the humorous, but quite accurate names such as 'Thousand Feet Precipice' and 'Ear Touching Cliff'.
Puji Si temple, Putuo Shan.
Pilgrims preparing to enter Puji Si temple, Pu Tuo
Putuo Shan, the lowest of China's sacred mountains, is located on a
small island of only twelve square kilometers, five kilometers east of
Zhoushan Island in Zhejiang province. The peak of Putuo Shan, meaning
‘beautiful white flower,’ is 291 meters above sea level and is reached by
a stone staircase with 1060 steps. A holy place before the arrival of
Buddhism, the island is full of mystic caves, tranquil valleys,
overhanging cliffs and golden beaches.
Putuo Shan and its temples are sacred to the Bodhisattva Avalokitesvara,
a goddess of compassion. Legends tell that Avalokitesvara attained supreme
enlightenment upon the island and that Sudhana, another Bodhisattva, came
to Putuo Shan to pay homage to Avalokitesvara. Mount Putuo first became a
Buddhist Sanctuary during the Tang Dynasty. Legends tell of an Indian
Monk, arriving late in the 9th century, who had received instruction and a
seven-hued precious stone from the Bodhisattva Avalokitesvara. In 916, the
Japanese monk Huie was stranded at Mount Putuo while bringing a statue of
Avalokitesvara from Mount Wutai to Japan. He prayed to the Goddess for
help and his call was answered. In gratitude he built at temple upon Mount
Putuo to enshrine the statue of the Goddess he had been carrying. This is
the so-called Bukenqu (Reluctant to Go) temple in Mount Putuo. Hsuan
Tsang, the celebrated monk of the Tang Dynasty is also known to have
visited Putuo Shan on his pilgrimage to India.
Avalokitesvara (also known as Kuan Yin or Guanyin) was originally a male Bodhisattva in India and Tibet, who changed gender after reaching China. Since the Yuan Dynasty, the image has gradually been converted into that of a young woman, and in Putou Shan she is sometimes depicted holding a vase in her hand, pouring out holy water to ease the suffering of people. This Bodhisattva, in either of its gender forms, is a deity of mercy and gentleness, and its association with Putuo Shan, according to the author's general theory, indicates that the energetic character of this sacred place is conducive to the development of compassion in the human heart.
The three major temples on Putuo Shan, Puji, Fayu and Huiji, are among the most impressive and elaborate of temples in China. First built in 1080, during the reign of the Northern Song Dynasty, the Puji Temple covers a space of 14,000 square meters and has nine halls, twelve pavilions, and sixteen chambers. Chinese legend has it that Avalokitesvara was born on February 19th of the lunar calendar, achieved enlightenment on June 19th, and achieved nirvana on September 19th. On these dates, pilgrims from all over the country congregate at Mount Putuo to pay homage to the Goddess. A festival of Kuan Yin on or around April 3 also draws many thousands of pilgrims. A folklore tradition on the holy island says, "Every nook and corner of the mountain contains a temple, and a monk appears whenever someone has lost his way."
Panorama of temples at Wu Tai Shan.
Statue of Bodhisattva Manjushri at Wu Tai Shan.
Because of its isolated location deep in the high mountains of north
China, Wu Tai Shan was mostly untouched by the destructive machinery of
the Communist Revolution. Perhaps nowhere else in all of China can one
view so clearly the traditional ways and the superb temple architecture of
old China. Wu Tai Shan actually encompasses a number of different
mountains, but long ago Buddhists chose five particular flat-topped peaks
as the perimeter of the sacred area, hence the name which means 'Five
Terrace Mountain'. The center of Chinese Buddhism for two thousand years,
Wu Tai Shan is widely known not only to the people of China but also to
Buddhists in Japan, India, Sri Lanks, Burma, Tibet and Nepal. Its Buddhism
is indissolubly tied up with that of Japan and had a great influence on
that country. Seeking after the Buddhist truth, such famous monks as Ennin
and Ryoosen in the Tang Dynasty, and Choonen and Seisan in the Song
Dynasty made long pilgrimages to Wu Tai Shan. The Tantric master
Amoghavajra also came to meditate here. The first temples on Mt. Wu Tai
were built during the reign of Emperor Ming in the first century A.D.
Today, the fifty-eight temples built after the Tang Dynasty (A.D. 684-705)
still stand. There are forty-eight temples of Chinese Buddhism and ten
Tibetan Lamasaries. The five peaks surround Taihuai town, in the center of
the Wu Tai Mountains. Most of the temples are located near the town. The
peaks of Wu Tai and all the surrounding temples are sacred to Manjushri,
the Bodhisattva of Wisdom and Virtue. Manjushri is believed to reside in
the vicinity of Wu Tai Shan and numerous legends speak of apparitions of
the Bodhisattva riding a blue lion in the high mountains above the
While traveling through China, I stayed a week at Wu Tai Shan. Because
of the elevation and the winter months it was extremely cold and therefore
I spent much of the time indoors, meditating in temples at different
monasteries. During these meditations I had some extraordinary
experiences, including visions, spontaneously arising inner heat, and
feelings of sublime joy. On one particular occasion something that I can
only describe as a 'beam of energy' surged out of a large statue of
Manjushri and entered into my chest. While the transmission of energy
lasted no more than ten seconds, my entire body was profoundly affected
and for nearly two weeks afterwards I had a constant tingling sensation in
my chest. It remains one of the most powerful experiences I have had at
any of the over 1000 sacred sites that I have visited. I mention this
experience because it closely parallels something I read about Wu Tai Shan
a year after I left China. Writing about Tsan-ning's 10th century
Biographies of Eminent Monks Compiled in the Sung, Raoul Birnbaum tells us
that: "Though I have not studied all of these biographies, I have sampled
through them, especially those concerning monks who were associated with
Mount Wu-t'ai. In these cases, the monks all had extraordinary visionary
experiences, most especially unusual manifestations of a Buddha or
bodhisattva and his retinue, in the course of which significant blessings
and teachings were bestowed. In each of these cases, the manifestations
occurred spontaneously in response to the purity and sageliness of the
monk, or it occurred in response to a prayer-plea. These manifestations
did not occur in response to any willful coercion or manipulation of the
monks; there was no magical activity involved; In the realm of practice,
this distinction is fundamentally important".
Readers interested in a more in-depth study of sacred sites and
pilgrimage in China are recommended to consult the following works:
1) Pilgrims and Sacred Sites in China; Naquin, Susan and Chun-fang Yu; University of California Press; Berkeley; 1992
2) The Manifestation of a Monastery: Shen-Ying's Experiences on Mount Wu-T'ai in T'ang Context; Birnbaum, Raoul; Journal of the American Oriental Society, 1986, vol. 106/1
3) The Sacred 5 of China; Geil, William Edgar; John Murray; London;
Explorer-anthropologist Martin Gray has spent 18 years as a wandering pilgrim visiting, studying and photographing over 1000 sacred sites in 80 countries around the world. To share his insights and photographs with a wide audience, Martin lectures at museums, universities and conferences throughout the US, South America and Europe. Based upon extensive scholarly research and his own mystical experiences at the sacred sites, Martin offers a fascinating discussion of the mythology and anthropology of pilgrimage places and a radical explanation of the miraculous phenomena that occurs at the sites. To see hundreds of Martin’s photographs and study his theories of sacred sites and earth magic, look at his extensive and beautiful web site, WWW.SACREDSITES.COM.
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About the Author
Martin Gray is an anthropologist and photographer specializing in the study of sacred sites and pilgrimage traditions around the world. Traveling as a pilgrim, Martin spent twenty years, visiting and photographing over 1000 sacred sites in eighty countries.
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