SUMMARY OF RESEARCH FINDINGS REGARDING THE IMPACT OF WATER SKIING ON THE ENVIRONMENT
WATER SKIING AND THE ENVIRONMENT -- INTRODUCTION
Water skiing has acquired over the years the reputation of a noisy and potentially dangerous sport that interferes with the quiet and safe enjoyment of a body of water. However, recent changes to the sport of water skiing will help
improve this view. The notable changes include the introduction of
regulations for fuel emission, engine modifications, and the gradual adoption of strategic management plans by management of water ski clubs and facilities.
Considerable work has been undertaken in recent years, primarily in Europe
and the United States, to dispel what many water ski supporters believe are
myths about their sport. Much of the work has focused on noise pollution,
with more recent research addressing other impacts such as shoreline
erosion and disturbance to waterfowl.
A common conclusion in many of the reports reviewed for this project was
that in general, and relative to other recreational boating activities,
water skiing has little overall damaging impact on the environment (EPA/BMI
'75; EEC; Sports Council '93; AWSA Resources 1 to 6; BMIF '94)
While such a generalization is encouraging, it can be misleading for
several reasons. First, impacts from water skiing must be evaluated
independently and not minimized by being measured against other
recreational boating activities. Second, the lack of research on specific
impacts, such as fuel emissions and disturbance to wildlife, makes such
generalizations premature and incomplete. Finally, the studies that found
direct environmental impacts due to water skiing at a given body of water,
should be viewed as significant. These findings may have important
implications with respect to the global environmental impact of water
skiing (Broads '97,'98; TNO '91; Posthill Pit '97; AWSA #1 &3 etc.)
While no new ecological impacts were uncovered associated with water
skiing, new issues have surfaced to positively change how the sport will
impact the environment in the years ahead. In particular, recently
introduced regulations by certain governments, and engine and boat
modifications by manufacturers. Both will help to significantly reduce
hydrocarbon emissions of gas powered motor boats.
The sport of water skiing is unique in that it has historically been an
'invisible' polluter – criticisms were typically about what could be heard
and seen and not about the millions of litres of fuel being dispersed into
the air and water. For several reasons this view of water skiing is
changing and all parties, manufacturers, governments, the public and water
ski organizations, are just today taking action to study impacts and
develop strategies to address them.
With both regulatory bodies and engine manufacturers taking steps to
control impacts, the timing for an IWSF environmental handbook is
Sources of information for this report included:
Literature review – most materials supplied through IWSF
Primary literature research – internet, libraries, books, magazines
Phone and internet interviews
Primary research -- boat and engine manufacturers questionnaire
The literature for this report came from several sources including the IWSF
and its member associations and federations, engine and boat manufacturers,
environmental and citizen groups, industry magazines, interest groups,
sport bodies, newspapers and various journals, legal documents, and
Our research approach was to draw out general conclusions from all the
literature where possible. This proved difficult at times as my task did
not entail examination of the literature's authenticity. Therefore, each
report and study was viewed as legitimate and was not questioned for bias
Furthermore, the reports/studies which discussed a specific body of water
addressed the unique characteristics of that body of water. This
uniqueness, while significant, makes certain theoretical conclusions and
generalizations about water skiing tentative. However, few studies
reviewed had problems or circumstances entirely unique to their particular
Reports and studies were from a limited number of countries including the
United Kingdom, United States, Canada, Australia, Belgium, France, the
Netherlands and South Africa. The majority of these were authored by
organizations with a vested interest in water skiing, and the majority of
the most current and comprehensive research reports originated from the UK
followed by the United States.
The issues studied for this report include noise pollution, fuel and oil
emissions, disturbance of waterfowl and wildlife, effect on geomorphology
(wash and bank erosion), and impact on aquatic biota (pollution and
In assessing the overall significance of the above issues we found that two,
fuel and oil emissions, and noise pollution, ranked above the rest for two
reasons. Emissions from fuel and oil have by far the greatest potential
for environmental harm both locally and globally due to the damaging
effects of hydrocarbons to water, and particularly the atmosphere. An
abundance of scientific evidence exists to prove how damaging hydrocarbons
are to the ozone layer, animal health, and human health problems like
asthma and cancer. The second reason is that water skiing is widely
criticized for noise, and it is also one of the most frequently reported
issues in the literature.
For each of the following issues we attempted to provide references which
represent similar findings from other reports and studies on the subject.
Historically noise has been the most emotive, and subjective issue plaguing
motor boating. The British Water Ski Federation defines noise as including
the engine, which is a combination of exhaust muffled by water cooled
manifolds and mechanical vibration which is muffled by flexible engine
mountings and sound absorbent cowlings. It is also a combination of the
movement of the boat through the water, 'wave slap' action, and the water
skier and people in the boat.
Water skiing has been labeled as one of the noisiest of recreational water
activities largely because of its irregular noise emissions from quick
accelerations, turns, and circles. Studies have been undertaken which
indicate that people find such irregular noise to be more disturbing than a
constant noise. However, recent noise tests prove that typical water
skiing activity does not produce sound above acceptable levels or higher
than other recreational boating activities (this is the case particularly
with engines built after 1972, and when water skiing is conducted in a
normal and respectful manner).
The most comprehensive work on noise research comes from the UK and the
U.S. Some of the UK's research includes the Code of Practice for Water
Skiing & Noise (BWSF,1997), The Code of Practice for Water Skiing in Noise
Sensitive Areas (BWSF, 1989), 'Water skiing and the Environment--A
Literature Review' (The Sports Council,1993), and Assessment of Water
Skiing on the Broads (Water Ski Working Group,1997)
Every year the American Water Ski Association (AWSA) conducts a series of
tests on powerboats submitted by their manufacturers for AWSA eligible
status. The tests are conducted in accordance with the Society of
Automotive Engineers, Shoreline Sound Level Measurement Procedure.
Both the BWSF and the AWSA have approved 75 dBA as the acceptable maximum
standard for noise for water ski boats travelling roughly 30 metres from
shore going between 22 and 36 miles per hour. Both organizations have
conducted tests which found that the modern recreational water ski engines
average around 69 dBA for in-boards and 68 dBA for outboards, which is well
below the 75 dBA level recommended by the British Noise Advisory Council
and the EPA.
A few of the reasons for the reduction in noise are better silencers and
soundproofing through insulating engines. There has also been a greater
shift from outboard to inboard engines, which are quieter by design
It is interesting to note that in 1993 Switzerland had a 72 dBA pass-by
noise limit while Bavaria had a 65 dBA limit. At this time both standards
were beyond the existing capability for most of the small (up to 40 kw
outboard) engines and motor boats (IMEC, '93 p10).
Based on these and other studies in the literature, it can be concluded that noise offences from water ski boats are no greater than those from other boats and noise sources. Water ski boats will also become even quieter as engines are modified over time. The two exceptions are old engines built before 1972, and the brief periods when competitions are held. In certain sites allowances have been made for water ski competitions where noise levels at world class events are allowed to be as high as 105 dBA. For sensitive areas, the BWSF recommends
a limit of 55 dBA (BWSF,'96).
One study undertaken in Belgium on motor boats up to 40kw horsepower
concluded that the shape of the boat hull was significant in determining
the level of noise (IMEC,'93)
Noise is not usually an issue with an electrically powered cable ski tow facility.
While water ski noise levels are much lower because of new engine
technology, motor boats pulling water skiers are still considered a
disturbance to people and wildlife in certain areas. While engine
modifications should continue to reduce noise levels, the question of the
disturbance must still be addressed. The best solution is through
management strategies, which include codes of practice and possibly
restrictions on number of boats, distance from shore, speed limits etc.
Suggested management strategies will be presented in detail in the
2. Fuel and Oil Emissions:
There is not a great deal of recent research on fuel and oil emissions caused by recreational motor boating and water skiing. One study on Lake Constance in the Bodensee, commissioned by the EEC, concluded that overall there is minimal toxic effect caused by boating on the aquatic biota. It is interesting to note that despite this finding the EEC still introduced severe restrictions on Lake Constance, including the ban of 2-stroke engines over 10 horsepower, because of the following:
Prevention principle – this is a valid political principle incorporated
into Swiss law that states that if an impact can be prevented then steps
must be taken.
Boating no exception – many other contributors to hydrocarbons are already
doing a great deal to reduce their emissions which leaves boating as a
Technology lagging – boating is far behind automotive industry so there is
great deal of room for improvement
However, this and many other studies also state that much is not known
about such things as how boat engines contribute to the influx of
polycyclicaromatic hydrocarbons (PAH), or the influence PAH or volatile
organic compounds (VOC) have on aquatic biota reproduction.
The lack of research leads one to conclude that either the water ski
population in general does not consider this an important enough issue to
warrant the studies required, or that the tests are too costly or difficult
to undertake. Regardless, the lack of research does not mean that the
water ski population can or should ignore the potential negative impacts.
An abundance of scientific evidence exists to prove that the potential for
damage to water and atmosphere from hydrocarbons must be addressed.
In fact, according to Andre Mele in his book Polluting for Pleasure (1993),
567 million to 1.6 billion litres of unburned fuel is exhausted into the
environment each year by 12 million gas powered pleasure boats in the
United States alone (the percent caused by water ski boats is not
available) As water skiing is a growing sport one could assume that this
figure has risen considerably in the United States since Mele's book was
published. Furthermore, it is likely that there are millions more litres
exhausted annually from water ski activity in other countries around the
world (pp 28-29).
2.1 Marine Engines
According to the UK's Sports Council in its 1993 report 'Water skiing and
the Environment', the majority of engines used for water skiing include 2
and 4 stroke outboards and both diesel and gas inboards. Diesel and propane
engines are not discussed as very little information was available on them
with regard to this project.
This section focuses on the 2-stroke engine as it is by far the largest,
and traditionally the most polluting category of the engines used for water
skiing. According to the boating industry 'the typical boat, is a 17 foot
planing runabout, with a two-stroke outboard motor producing 68 horsepower.
It consumes about 20 gallons of gasoline and 3.5 pints of lubricating oil
during a three-to-four hour afternoon of operation' (Mele, p.26)
The 4-stroke is considerably cleaner as there is no mixing of gas and oil
and they typically get about twice the mileage of a 2-stroke engine.
4-strokes make up a smaller percent of the engines used to pull water
skiers because they are generally more expensive, not as quick at the
start, and are typically heavier motors.
Custom designed water ski boats are not uncommon, and the majority use
specially modified inboard gas engines designed to adapt to the different
operating conditions encountered in water ski towing. A large percent of
these boats run on propane fuel, and not gasoline, which implies that these
boats are cleaner running than gas powered boats. A figure was not
available in the literature to estimate the percent of water ski boats
that fall into this category.
2.1.1 2- Stroke Engines
2-stroke outboard engines have the reputation of being one of the dirtiest of
engines because of an inefficient 'scavenging' process. What this means is
that incoming fuel to the piston's combustion chamber 'scavenges' or pushes
the burned exhaust gases out of the cylinder causing compression, ignition
and energy. Through this scavenging process a significant amount of unburnt
fuel is emitted into the water through the exhaust system.
According to the Water Pollution Control Federation on average, ten to
twenty percent of the original (unburnt) fuel may be discharged, with the
extremes reaching as high as 55 percent (AWSA,Part 4). Both Mele and the
EPA concluded the figure to be around 30 percent. One report from the EPA
suggest that a modern 50 hp 2-stroke outboard emits as many hydrocarbons in
one hour as a typical car does in about 40 hours (Cottage Life Magazine,
Modern outboard engines exhaust below the surface of the water causing most
hydrocarbons to pass as gas through the water column before evaporating
into the atmosphere. The propeller facilitates the disbursement of much of
the bubbles containing the fuel. The remainder condense and become
suspended in the water column, accumulate in sediments, or form surface
film until they degrade or are released into the atmosphere (Sports
Unburned gasoline contains benzene, toluene and other aromatic compounds
that in high concentrations have been shown to be toxic to various aquatic
organisms. Once burnt, the fuel creates a group of compounds called
polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons which are linked to cancer and genetic
mutations. Both the lubricating oil and the polycyclic aromatics will
persist in the environment for a much longer period of time then gasoline
(Globe & Mail, May '94).
>From studies performed at Woods Hole, water bodies subjected to motor
boating always show significant degree of induction of enzymes into the
liver of the bottom fish. Scientists believe that this effect indicates a
correlation between motor boating and its toxilogical effect on the aquatic
organisms (G&M, May '94).
In summary, there is no doubt that the emissions from gas motor boat
engines towing water skiers pollutes the environment. To what extent and
how it impacts various organisms and biota is not well defined. As a
general philosophy, the Prevention Principle should be the guiding principle
for all water ski supporters and club operators. More research could be
done so that impacts of fuel and oil emissions are better understood and in
turn prevented. The good news is that both engine manufacturers and
governments are moving in the right direction and will hopefully continue
to do so in the years to come.
3. Disturbance of Waterfowl and Wildlife
In general there appears to be a lack of information on exact impacts
suffered by birds and animals due to water ski activity. The majority of
the research appears to be on wildfowl and, in particular, wintering
wildfowl. There is minimal research on the impact of water skiing on
wildlife or summer populations of waterfowl (Sports Council,'93)
Several studies concluded that the closer to the shoreline and to nesting
sites of waterfowl a motor boat travels the greater likelihood there is for
disturbance of bird and animal species. The UK Sports Council summarized
the issue as follows:
At the local, site specific level, water skiing per se does appear to have
a disturbing impact and causes concern to conservationists. The
disturbance of wildfowl in response to water skiing activity has been
observed at a variety of locations and ranges from the birds taking flight
to redistribution around the site or desertion of the site. The level at
which local impacts may increase and combine in the future to have a
national impact is uncertain (Broads Authority,'97 p 60)
The Sports Council literature review on the subject found that for some
species, particularly sensitive birds, the "speed, noise and erratic
movement of the water skier can be a potential threat to less tolerant
species. Additionally, birds which may tolerate a constant low level of
noise, may not tolerate the erratic noise of water skiing activity" (Broads
In general, studies conclude that more research is required especially on
seasonal variations of certain species and such things as rare or
endangered species. Each site should have a good understanding of what
type of waterfowl and wildlife inhabit the regions where their members
water ski. Club operators would be wise to develop management plans with
strategies to reduce impacts to protect the species. Suggestions of how
club operators can do this will be outlined in the handbook.
Denham Green, UK
In one application document for a water ski facility in the UK, extensive
work was done to develop the facility in conjunction with a nature
conservation area. The plan includes an integration of sport and nature
and some of the features proposed include:
A re-grading of steep-sided lake edges where possible to a shallower
profile to provide marginal aquatic shelves
Planting of specific aquatic vegetation to encourage colonization of
aquatic species and breeding habitats
A dedicated breeding bird sanctuary located on constructed islands for
screening, breeding and loafing. These will be constructed using material
gained from re-profiling the lake sides.
Channels will be cut at certain points to provide wooded island breeding
Certain areas will ban public access and will become 'no-go' areas-some are
expected to become grassland habitats where practicable
The site will include a slalom course located away from bird islands
No water based activity will take place in much of the overwintering season
The use of gas powered boats will be allied to lake depth to minimize
The entire site would be managed by a comprehensive plan developed with one
of UK's noted conservation bodies, English Nature. (A Proposal for an
Integrated Water-ski and Nature Conservation Facility at Denham Green, '94)
4. Geomorphology -- Wash and Bank Erosion
Bank erosion rates vary according to the form and composition of the
shoreline, the shoreline gradient, and with the degree of natural or
artificial protection. Furthermore, research has found that most damage
occurs in areas with unstable, unvegetated shorelines, and/or a weak
vegetative growth (AWSA, Executive Summary of Scientific Literature on
Outboard-Powered Boats, #3) The degree of impact that water skiing has on
the shoreline is a result of the relationship between the number of boats,
the shape of the boat hull, the speed of the boat, the depth of the water,
and the distance the boat is from shore.
The relationship between wash and these factors is complex. For example, a
deep draft, slow-moving boat causes more wash than fast-moving water ski
boat with a planing hull. Some boats create a larger wash when
accelerating to or decelerating from planing speed. One study found that a
water ski boat operating 25m from shore had a wash no greater than that
from a strong wind. At 100 m from the shore the effect was negligible
A key factor is how far away from shore the boats and water skiers pass.
According to several studies most damage can occur at distances under 100
metres and that a safe distance where boats should not pass is 150 m or 500
feet of an erosion susceptible shoreline (Sports Council '93, p48).
One of the best studies on wave effect is by the Broads Authority that
found that the total potential for erosion by water skiing over a year was
not much greater than other boating activity. However, when peak season
was factored in at the busiest ski area of the Broads, it was concluded
that "the total potential for erosion by water skiing was
an additional 81% over and above that of general boat traffic." And, on a
per hour basis it was concluded that the average ski boat does at least
three times as much damage as the worst dayboat (Broads Authority,'97 p
Other studies have shown that wave action affects submerged aquatic
vegetation directly through biomass removal, seedling displacement and
propagule transport or indirectly through erosion, sorting and deposition
of sediment (Sports Council '93, pg 48)
One study in Florida on boat traffic found that it was a major cause of
shoreline erosion, especially along shorelines vegetated by mangroves.
Boat wakes were noted to affect mangroves directly interfering with
recruitment, washing sediments out of the forest floor, and causing roots
to break. Mangroves were also directly affected by increased turbidity in
the root zone (Henigar and Ray Engineering Associates, '89)
The problem of boat wash can be remediated through a combination of actions
including the planting of certain types of vegetation, the reconstruction
of shorelines, the buffering of shorelines and a range of other
diversionary steps. Furthermore, a management plan that restricts the
proximity to shore a motor boat and skier can travel should be in place
where needed. Suggestions for reducing wash and minimizing bank erosion
will be outlined in the handbook.
5. Aquatic Biota – Pollution and Turbidity
The direct effect of water skiing and recreational boating on the aquatic
biota is not well documented in recent literature. In the late 60's and
early 70's considerable research on fuel emission pollution on the biota
was undertaken, particularly in the United States. At this time, study
after study found that in general there were not significant impacts on
microorganisms or fish due to fuel emissions.
There are often many contributing factors which compound the issue of water
pollution and make it difficult to assess the extent of damage water skiing
has on the biota. The damage that does occur appears to be taking place
close to shorelines and marinas (particularly near fueling stations), in
waterways with high traffic, and at sites close to sources of pollution.
Several studies found that shallow bodies of water subjected to high
rates of motor boat traffic typically have higher rates of hydrocarbon
pollution. Water skiing does contribute to the hydrocarbon levels in these particular areas as almost all skiers start and end near shore, and some of the
greatest need for fuel takes place at the start of the tow.
In Naples Bay, Florida it was concluded that the condition of natural,
estuarine resources and surrounding inshore waters would worsen with increased boat traffic. The pollutants were primarily fuel, oils, and grease. Because these compounds float their effects on productive intertidal areas would be more pronounced. Denser forms of the compounds became incorporated into
the sediments and could affect bottom-dwelling organisms (Henigar and Ray
Engineering Associates, '89)
Lake X, Florida
This study on hydrocarbon pollution in particular is well known and was
undertaken in Florida on Lake X, a 1400 acre body of water that had been
used by Mercury Marine as an engine test site. Accurate records had been
kept as to hours of engine use and the amount of fuel consumed over a ten
year period. In the spring of 1969 the company engaged the services of an
engineering company to test the water of Lake X and compare it with the
waters of another Florida lake called Cat Lake, one which had never been
exposed to outboard motor boat operation. A series of 34 chemical and
physical comparisons made between the water samples taken from each lake
showed no discernable difference in water quality. The Lake X water showed
no evidence of contamination from hydrocarbons in the exhaust water, and
phytoplankton and bottom organisms were not affected by exhaust emissions.
Because of the Lake X study, additional, similar studies were undertaken in
the 70's and the results were the same; there was no significant difference
in water quality as a result of outboard operation (AWSA, Available
Resources Part 5)
While this case was good news for water skiing and motor boating in the 70s
the same study may have different implications today. While the aquatic
biota may not have been adversely impacted at sites with relatively low
concentrations of pollutants, this is not the case for species subjected to
high concentrations of hydrocarbon pollutants-- typically they show toxic
These pollutants usually end up in one of three sites; bound in sediments,
bioaccumulated in animals and humans, and more likely dispersed into the
air we breathe. We know a great deal more today about how airborne
hydrocarbons interact with other elements to create deadly acids and oxides
and how damaging these are to our environment.
In 1987 the carcinogenic antifouling paint Tributyltin (TBT) was banned in
the UK on vessels under 25 metres in length. However, TBT is still used on
crafts over 25 metres. This biocide is intended to prevent microorganisms
from adhering themselves to the hull and causing damage and reduced fuel
efficiency. Copper has now replaced TBT and it is uncertain what impact
this may have on the biota (BMIF,'94,p2.4)
By and large, the majority of the literature reviewed reported that there
was no significant impact to the aquatic biota due to water skiing.
However one has to wonder how so many millions of litres of fuel can be
emitted into the water and not significantly affect the biota. Perhaps
the issue is one of time -- as the number of motor boats and water skiers
increase, the concentration of pollutants may rise to levels which are
classified as having 'very significant' impacts on the aquatic biota.
Fortunately, steps are now being taken with recent changes to engines and
to regulations on emissions to help reduce such impacts. The handbook can
guide club operators on ways to reduce impacts, and provide valuable
information for the water skier to make environmentally wise choices when
purchasing marine engines.
Turbidity is caused when engine propellers and/or boat wash stir up bottom
sediments in shallow waters. The degree of turbidity is directly
proportional to the depth of the water. It appears to be the common
opinion in North America and Europe that the minimum depth a water ski boat
should operate in is 2 metres (BWSF). Increases in turbidity are
negligible for water ski boats in water greater than 2.5 metres (Pearce,
'89, Sports Council '93)
There is little doubt that increased turbidity decreases the amount of
light in a water column and in turn reduces the growth of submerged aquatic
vegetation. One study found that an increase in turbidity caused an
increase in phosphorous concentrations which in turn may be the cause for
an increase in algae growth, chlorophyll concentrations, and gross oxygen
production (Yousef, '78) Another study on the Norfolk Broads found that an
increase in turbidity was caused by high concentration of phytoplankton and
not boating activity (Moss,'77).
Another impact from motor boat engines and turbidity is a loss of aquatic
macrophytes due to shading. One study found that regular boat use
destroyed established beds of aquatic vegetation in shallow water. In
these areas there was less fine sediment, a reduced pH, and a reduced
oxidation-reduction potential in the bottom sediments (Chmura, Ross '78)
To summarize, turbidity is not a new issue and is controllable where water
skiing is a contributing factor. The first step would be to restrict water
ski boats from entering waters less than 2.5 metres in depth. The
exception being when starting and finishing a ski tow. Other measures will
be outlined in the handbook under management practices for club operators.
RECENT DEVELOPMENTS—TECHNOLOGICAL AND REGULATORY
Parallels have been made in the literature between the boating and the
automotive industries with respect to the evolution of pollution control
devices, and why the boating industry is so far behind the automotive
industry. This is especially significant when one considers that the large
auto manufacturers are also the engineers behind many marine engines.
General opinion finds that the boating industry has not made significant
advancements in controlling its fuel emissions and noise levels primarily
because of lack of government regulations (and public pressure) and
manufacturer initiative, and not because of lack of technological
capabilities (Mele,'93). All indications are that the boating industry,
primarily engine and boat manufacturers, are just now being urged to make
the environmental leap forward which the automotive industry did some 10 to
20 years ago.
The following two issues are recent positive developments in motor boating
aimed at bridging this pollution control gap:
1. Fuel Emission Regulations – forcing change
2. New Technology – significant reduction in hydrocarbons
One of the most significant steps taken recently by a country to control
fuel emissions was by the USA when its Environmental Protection Agency
introduced a phased-in emission control program to reduce motor boat engine
emissions by 75% by 2006 (see Appendix B for EPA Regulations). Each year
from 1998 to 2006 clean new engines will replace older ones, culminating in
a 60 to 80 percent reduction in total industry hydrocarbons (EPA, Boating
Industry, Oct.'93) In arriving at this regulation, the EPA worked closely
with the Association of Marine Engine Manufacturers (AMEM) .
This has significant global implications for water skiing as a large
percent of the engine manufacturers gear their products to the U.S.
marketplace. According to the National Marine Manufacturers Association,
"the U.S. market for marine products represents fully one-half of worldwide
demand. As the new generation marine engines are discovered and purchased
in other countries, the benefits of environmental gains in the U.S. will
accrue globally" (NMMA web site)
To compare, the 1991 worldwide production of outboard engines totaled 1
million. Of these the European market was responsible for acquiring
150,000 units (TNO,'91).
In looking briefly at purchasing power, it is obvious that the U.S. holds
the lion's share. It is therefore encouraging to see that these recent
modifications and regulations will have positive global spin-off effects.
Environment Canada is expected to mirror the EPA's emission control
regulations once it ratifies its Environmental Protection Act to allow for
regulations to be introduced for non-road engines. According to Leif
Stevenson from the Transportation Systems Branch of Environment Canada, any
Canadian regulations will most likely piggy back on the EPA ones now in
place with some modifications for the Canadian marketplace (see Appendix
for Environment Canada Memorandum).
One of the main ways manufacturers of marine motors are going to reduce
emissions is through the redesign of their 2-stroke engines. These engines
are now being built using the direct inject fuel system whereby the fuel is
injected directly into the cylinder
after closure of the exhaust port. Orbital is one company that has a
patent on this new engine and recently made a deal with Mercury Marine to
market the new product under the Optimax brand. According to Mercury
Marine President, Mr. George Buckley:
This highlights the significant success that Optimax direct injection
engines are having in the market. The new engines offer smooth running
quality, have virtually eliminated annoying exhaust fumes and give an
average 40 percent better fuel economy, in addition to emission reductions
that exceed EPA 2006 standards. Customer satisfaction with this increased
boating pleasure is reflected in our recent decision to increase production
in the forthcoming year by around 50% over previous.
This announcement comes after a similar commitment from Bombardier Inc.,
manufacturer of about half the world's personal watercraft, in April of
this year. These recent commitments by the two most important
manufacturers in the marine industry are an acknowledgement that the
industry is moving closer to the standards seen today in the automotive
industry (Orbital Engine Corporation, press release, web site
http://www.orbeng.com.au, July 98.).
Estimates are that this new 2-stroke design will cut CO emissions by 85-90
percent and hydrocarbon emissions by 95%. Unfortunately, the emission of
nitrous oxides will increase because more fuel is being burnt. Also, using
less lubrication from a 2 percent to 1 percent ratio and using a synthetic
biodegradable lubricant oil will significantly reduce the emission of oil
into the water (TNO Industrial Reseach,'91).
These new engines, combined with better pollution control devices and
closer matching of engines to hull designs and efficiency of propeller
installations, will result in high efficiency fuel injection, lean burn
techniques, and significant reduction of burnt and unburnt hydrocarbons.
With respect to boat hulls, modifications to their design have decreased
noise levels, fuel consumption, and reduced wave action. In the UK, one
manufacturer was awarded the English Tourist Board award (1993) for its
'eco-hull' narrowboat which produce a low wash/wave and in turn greater
fuel efficiency (BMI p.9)
The end result of these modifications and regulations is a significant
reduction in hydrocarbon emissions and noise levels. Consequently, there
will be additional benefits from reduced hydrocarbon loading on the ozone
layer, acid rain, smog, and diseases like cancer and respiratory illnesses.
All good news for the water ski industry.
Lake Windermere – Lake District National Park
Lake Windermere is considered England's largest lake and has suffered from
excessive noise, wave wash, and irresponsible behavior by boaters and water
skiers. Eleven thousand registered motor boats use the lake and there are
1000 moorings and jetties. The average number of boats on a summer Sunday
reached a peak in 1977 at 1400 per day. Water skiing has increased
steadily since the 1970's.
In 1989 the National Park Authority began a consultation process to find a
solution to these problems.
In this situation legal powers did not exist to make bylaws which would
require boat users to have insurance or prevent them the right to public
access to the lake. It was also not possible for the Park Authority to
introduce a comprehensive zoning scheme. After considerable discussion,
the Lake District's Special Planning Board decided to introduce a bye-law
for a single 10 mph speed limit over the whole lake.
This proposal was the subject of a planning inquiry which lasted 14 weeks
and one that became a national issue. Both the BWSF and the Sports Council
were in opposition saying that their members were losing the right to enjoy
a national park and that up to 750 jobs would be lost from four water ski
instruction centres and other facilities.
After much discussion, review and debate the Board agreed to work with the
Sports Council and BWSF to produce a management plan and a code of conduct
for the lake. The management plan introduced a strategy whereby water
skiing, motor boat racing and recreational motor boating were permitted on
Lake Windermere under certain circumstances.
An annual boat registration was introduced and driver's licenses were
issued for boats and drivers who wished to travel over the 10 mph limit.
The drivers must pass a driving test and comply with a written Code of
Conduct and the Windermere Bye-Laws. They also must arrange for their
boat to have an annual Ministry of Transportation noise test to ensure that
they meet a defined noise level. Those boats which pass the test must
carry their noise emission certificate at all times on the boat.
A boat testing station was established on Lake Windermere to ensure boats
initially met the noise standard and can be checked periodically throughout
the year. Each boat meeting the standard must show a coloured letter
attached to the hull. A maximum 40 mph speed limit was set for all boats
and between sunset and 7am all boats must mind the 10 mph speed limit. Any
radios or hi-fi equipment must be operated at a respectable level and not
cause offense to other lake or shore users.
In addressing the shoreline erosion and wildlife disturbance issues, a
zoning restriction was introduced whereby boats cannot pass within 50
metres of any shoreline or 50 metres of any area designated as being a
'sensitive area' on the management map. Water skiing shall not take place
within 50 metres of any moored boats. Powerboats towing a skier must start
off directly at 90 degrees from the shore rather than at a tangent. And
finally, water skiing shall not take place within areas of seasonal
constraint as designated by the management committee and described on their
management map. This would include waterfowl wintering areas, spring and
fall spawning of char regions, and a wildlife refuge (Lake Windermere
Public Inquiry, The Management Plan and Code of Conduct, Sports
ENVIRONMENTAL BENEFITS OF WATER SKIING
There were several benefits to the environment due to water skiing found in
a limited number of publications. These included:
Due to the engine propeller, oxygen is introduced into the water and this
is especially beneficial in stagnant bodies of water or shallow, poorly
oxygenated waters. The introduction of oxygen allows for growth of
beneficial microorganisms which in turn allows for species diversification
and proliferation (FFSN, Le Ski Nautique et L'Environment, '82, van
Donkelaar, Positive Environmental Effects of Pleasure Boating, '94).
Furthermore, one study found that the aeration process in the wake of a
boat offers efficient mechanisms for the removal of polluting substances,
particularly hydrocarbons, from the water. These mechanisms are used in
the removal of engine exhaust emissions but also for substances from other
sources which are already present before the boat passed (van Donkelaar, '94)
Algae and Coliform:
In some bodies of water which do not have boating it was found that there
was a higher incidence of algae growth compared to ones subject to boat
traffic. According to the author of one study, "under field conditions,
boating activities tend to correlate positively with a healthy
environment". The same study also reported that coliform counts in open
waters subjected to high boat traffic were well below EU limits for
swimming water compared to values found in moorings and shallow areas of
the same body of water (van Donkelaar, '94)
Waterfowl and Wildlife:
In the case mentioned above regarding Denham Green, both waterfowl and
wildlife would benefit from the conservation measures proposed,
particularly the construction of islands as part of the bird sanctuary.
Some additional measures proposed included a ban on fishing so that birds
would not be disturbed, the preservation of grasslands, and the creation of
marginal wetlands to improve waterfowl habitats. All these measures were
part of a comprehensive plan to combine water skiing with nature and could
possibly be duplicated in other sites around the world.
Personal Water Craft – from very preliminary research we found that the PWC
industry has just this past year produced crafts that are significantly
quieter and emit less fuel. We are awaiting information from manufacturers to
The following is an outline of the recommendations for the IWSF handbook.
We suggest the handbook be divided into 3 sections with the first being an
educational section on the issues and how water skiing impacts the
environment. The second and third sections being addressed to the club and
marina operators and the member / water skiers respectively (unless the
IWSF just wants this handbook for club operators)
The recommendations for sections two and three would include the
MARINA AND CLUB OPERATORS
Pre-Construction Criteria – if a club has not yet been built or established
this list of criteria will recommend best sites or key features to find for
a site which will have least environmental impact i.e. site far from tidal
rivers and coastal waters, strong geomorphology (not sand or gravel) and
good vegetative coverage to withstand wash impact , depth of water over 2
General Management Plan – this would list the criteria or headings which
every club should have in their management plan to cover all aspects of
operation and user activity. Under this broad plan would fall the
environmental management system and its component parts:
Environmental Management System – A detailed EMS would be outlined by
heading to cover the A to Z of management of the club. This would include
such steps for the management to follow with regards to liquid and solid
waste management, recycling, re-use, energy efficiency and so on.
Inventory – a list of what should be accounted for by the club, including
its properties, boats, machinery etc. A list of stakeholders is important
part of this inventory.
Field Research - a list of the possible issues to be assessed including
shoreline, birds, animals etc. For each issue, suggestions and practical
steps would be listed in point form. For example, if a site needs to
protect its shoreline from wash, some points may include the spatial and
temporal zoning of vegetation, the types of vegetation to plant,
construction of banks, etc.
Code of Practice – a table of contents in handbook would guide club
operators on what to include in this such as description of
responsibilities and expectations members agree to before being allowed to
use facilities and waterways. Some suggested steps include restrictions,
bye-laws, or mores of water skiing which all members would follow. Also,
testing drivers and issuing licenses, providing boat registration, special
licenses for higher speeds (i.e. for competition driving), how to handle
fuel, what to do with waste fuel or hazardous waste, type of paints
acceptable etc. These would be point form and not detailed instructions on
Code of Conduct for Noise – Using the BWSF's Code of Conduct for Noise as a
guide, a table of contents would list what a code for noise would include —
some suggestions may be an industry accepted decibel standard , annual
noise testing for boat and engine, noise level permits, no-pass zones,
acceptable types of engines etc.
Education/Communication Program – a list of suggestions that could come
under the EMS for environmental education may include tips to remind
members about environmental issues and practices. For example, using a
post it board, or newsletter to remind boat drivers and skiers about noise
levels, no-pass zones, restricted zones, new fuel efficient engines etc.
MEMBERS / WATER SKIERS
The goal of this section would be to educate the member/water skier so that
they make choices and take actions because they have a responsibility and
hopefully desire to do so (as explained in section one of the handbook).
This section would include the following:
Engines and Boats — a brief overview of what is available in fuel
efficient, quiet engines and boats i.e. what criteria to look for in an
engine including acceptable fuel consumption and emission rates. This
could be done without getting into brand name identification.
How Water Skiers Can Make a Difference – a section of tips on how they can
drive and ski responsibly and benefit the environment. References would be
made to Codes of Practice and Conduct for Noise. Other tips such as how
to clean and re-paint boats or equipment without adding pollutants or
hazardous wastes and so on would also be included.
It can be stated that, in general water skiing does not have a major,
negative impact on the environment with the exception of its contribution
of hydrocarbons to waterways and the atmosphere.
The issue of hydrocarbon emissions is significant and one which has not
been given enough attention in the past by the water ski population. This
is especially relevant when considering the potential destructive impact
that billions of litres of fuel used for water skiing has on the global
environment. The advancements with engines and regulations are very recent
and it may take many years before significant reductions are achieved.
However, the good news is that some major engine manufacturers are already
producing engines that comply with the 2006 EPA emission control standard.
The perceived image of water skiing as noisy, polluting and disturbing to
waterfowl and wildlife will likely continue for many years to come. As
water and land use come under greater pressures there will be increased
need for management plans and policies to ensure all users' rights are
upheld, and the environment protected. It is therefore important that
water ski organizations encourage their members to take steps to reduce the
environmental impacts of water skiing. In particular, they can support and
possibly finance studies and research on specific issues like fuel
emissions, disturbance to waterfowl and wildlife, and wash impact.
While this project examined water skiing and its impacts in the field (or
rather on the water), some consideration must be given to the associated
impacts of participating in the sport. We refer here to a cradle to grave
approach that includes many factors such as the impacts of travelling to
and from bodies of water, the materials and pollution used to build the
engines and boats, packaging and so on. Perhaps some strategies and
management plans could be developed by water ski organizations and club
operators to help reduce such impacts.
There is no question that the sport is moving in the right direction with
respect to the environment. With some guidance and encouragement from
national and international bodies, considerably more could be done to
dispel the myths and benefit the environment. The handbook is one tool
that could help with these two goals.
EPA Regulations (http://www.epa.gov/OMSWWW/)
Environment Canada Memorandum (copy sent by e-mail and fax)
Bibliography (to come)