Glossary This Glossary includes many of the technical terms that you will encounter in this book. Within each definition all boldface terms are defined elsewhere in this glossary. The phonetic spelling in brackets, when given, indicates the pronunciation of a term. The principal stressed syllables are indicated by a prime (9); other syllables are separated by hyphens (-). The macron (¯) is used for long vowels and the breve (˘) is used for short vowels. The schwa (Q) represents an unstressed neutral vowel. Its sound can vary according to the vowel it represents or the sounds surrounding it (about, item). ä 5 the vowel sound in “car”; î that in “pier”; ô that in “paw”; 9 that in “took”; 7 that in “boot”; û that in “urge”; zh 5 the “s” in “vision”; th 5 the “th” in “them”. For most terms, the classic derivation is given in parentheses because the derivation is descriptive of some aspect of the term and will help you learn and remember it. Because many word roots are repeated in different combinations in other terms, you will soon become familiar with the more common roots. The derivations typically include three components: (1) the language of the original word (Gr. 5 Greek, L. 5 Latin); (2) the original word in italics; and (3) the meaning of the original word. Usually only the nominative is given for Greek and Latin nouns, but the genitive (gen.) is included when this is necessary to recognize the root. For Greek and Latin verbs, the original word usually is shown in the first person, singular, present tense because this form of the word is closer to the root term than is the infinitive. The past participle (pp.) or present participle (pres.p.) also is given when this is necessary to recognize the root. The English meaning is given in the infinitive. In some cases, a noun or verb is given in the form it takes when used in combination with other words. This is indicated by a hyphen before or after the word (e.g., odonto- 5 tooth, as in odontoblast). When the English and classic terms are identical, only the classic meaning is given: Abducens nerve (L., abducens, pres.p. 5 leading away) When two or more successive terms use the same root, the derivation is given only for the first one: Archicerebellum (Gr., arche 5 origin, beginning 1 L., cerebellum 5 small brain) Archinephric duct (Gr., nephros 5 kidney) The origin of many repetitive terms is given under the first entry of the term. For example, ligamentum arteriosum is defined the way this combination of words is used, but the derivation of “ligamentum” and “arteriosum” will be found under the terms “ligament” and “artery.” The pronunciations, derivations, and definitions of additional terms can be found in Dorland’s or Stedman’s medical dictionaries or in unabridged dictionaries. A Abdomen [a˘b9dQ-mQn] (L., abdomen 5 from 1 abdo 5 to conceal). The part of the body cavity containing the viscera. Abducens nerve [a˘b-du¯9sQnz] (L., abducens, pres.p. 5 leading away). The nerve that innervates the lateral rectus muscle of the eyeball; cranial nerve 6. Abductor [a˘b9du˘k9tQr] (L., ab- 5 prefix meaning away from 1 duco, pp. ductus, 5 to lead). Describes a muscle that abducts or moves a structure away from the midventral line of the body or some other point of reference, e.g., the abductor femoris. †Acanthodians [a˘k-a˘n-tho¯9de¯-Qnz] (Gr., akanthodes 5 spiny). An extinct group of early bony fishes containing the earliest known jawed vertebrates. Although commonly called the spiny sharks, they may be more closely related to bony fishes (Osteichthyes) than to sharks (Chondrichthyes). Acceleration. The rate of increase in speed, often expressed as meters per second per second. Accessory nerve. The eleventh cranial nerve of amniotes, which innervates the sternocleidomastoid and trapezius complex of muscles. Acetabulum [a˘s9ı˘-ta˘b9y7-lu˘m] (L., 5 vinegar cup). The socket in the pelvic girdle that receives the head of the femur. Acinar [a˘s9ı˘-när] (L., acinus 5 berry). A berry-shaped group of glandular cells. Acoelous vertebra [a¯-se¯9lQs] (Gr., a 5 without 1 koiloma 5 hollow). A vertebral body that lacks cavities and is flat on each surface. Acousticolateralis system [u˘-k7s9tı˘-ko¯-la˘t-Qr-a˘9lı˘s] (Gr., akoustikos 5 related to hearing). The ear and lateral line system of fishes and larval amphibians; also called the octavolateralis system. Acrodont tooth [a˘k9ro¯-do˘nt] (Gr., akron 5 tip). A tooth that is loosely attached to the crest or inner edge of the jaw. Acromion [a˘-kro¯9me¯-Qn] (Gr., omos 5 shoulder). The process on the scapula to which the clavicle articulates in species with a welldeveloped clavicle. Acrosome [a˘k9ro¯-so¯m] (Gr., soma 5 body). The cap at the apex of a sperm head that contains enzymes needed for the sperm to penetrate the egg. Actinopterygians [a˘k9tı˘n-o˘p-tQ-rı˘j9e¯-Qnz] (Gr., aktin 5 ray 1 pteryg- 5 fin or wing). A group (Actinopterygii) containing about half of all living vertebrate species, or 95% of living fish species; the ray-finned fishes. See fish. Action potential. The electrical changes that occur across the plasma membrane of muscle and nerve cells when they become active. Adaptation. A feature suited for a particular environment or mode of life. Also used to refer to the evolutionary process by which organisms became fitted to their environment. Identified retrospectively, this term is often used ambiguously. Adaptive radiation. A term for a retrospectively identified hypothetical process in which a lineage speciates and evolves to occupy different habitats and modes of life. Adductor [a˘-du˘k9tQr] (L. adducere, pp. 5 lead to). Describes a muscle that adducts, or moves a structure toward the midventral line of the body or other point of reference, such as the adductor mandibulae. Adenohypophysis [a˘d9Q-no¯-hı¯-po˘f9Q-sı˘s] (Gr., aden 5 gland 1 hypophysis 5 under growth). The secretory portion of the pituitary gland, or hypophysis, that develops as an outgrowth from the stomodaeum; secretes hormones that regulate pigment production, growth, and the activity of the thyroid gland, adrenal gland, and gonads. Adrenal gland [Q-dre¯9nQl] (L., ad 5 toward 1 rene 5 kidney). An endocrine gland next to the kidney, consisting of distinct cortical and medullary parts. Major hormones of the cortex are cortisol, aldosterone, and cortical androgen; the major hormone of the medulla is epinephrine. Adrenaline. See epinephrine. Adrenergic fibers [a˘d-rQ-nûr9jı˘k] (L., ad 5 toward 1 rene 5 kidney). Postganglionic sympathetic neurons that release noradrenaline (norepinephrine) at the neuroeffector junctions. Adrenocorticotropic hormone [Q-dre¯-no¯-kôr9tı˘-ko¯-tro¯9pı˘k] (Gr., trophe 5 nurture). A hormone produced by the adenohypophysis that promotes the synthesis and release of adrenocortical hormones. Aestivation. See estivation. Afferent [a˘f9Qr-Qnt] (L., ad 5 toward 1 fero 5 to carry). Describes structures that travel toward a point of reference, such as neurons toward the central nervous system or arteries toward the gills. Agnatha [a˘g-na¯9thQ] (Gr., a 5 without 1 gnathos 5 jaw). A nonmonophyletic group including the jawless vertebrates (e.g., ostracoderms and cyclostomes) with a fossil record extending back over 500 million years and represented today by the living hagfishes and lampreys. Aldosterone [a˘l-do˘s9tQr-o¯n]. A hormone of the adrenal cortex that helps regulate mineral metabolism. Allantois [a˘-la˘n9to¯-ı˘s] (Gr., allas 5 sausage 1 eidos 5 form). The extraembryonic membrane that develops as an outgrowth of the hind gut. It serves for respiration and excretion in reptile and bird embryos, contributes to the placenta in eutherians, and forms the urinary bladder and part of the urethra in adult amniotes. Allocortex [a˘-lo˘-kôr9te˘ks] (Gr., allos 5 other 1 L. cortex 5 bark). The part of the mammalian brain cortex characterized by three neuronal layers, the lateral and medial pallium. Allometry [a˘-lo˘m9Q-tre¯] (Gr., metron 5 measure). The study of relative growth in which the proportions of a part of an animal change at a different rate than another part. Alula [a˘l9y7-lQ] (L., ala 5 wing 1 -ule 5 suffix denoting diminutive). The tuft of feathers borne by the first digit of a bird’s wing. Alveolus [a˘l-ve¯9o¯-lQs] (L., 5 small pit). A small pit or cavity, such as a tooth socket or a small saclike structure in a lung, where gas exchange occurs. Ameloblasts [a˘-me˘l9o¯-bla˘sts] (Middle English, amel 5 enamel 1 Gr., blastos 5 bud). Cells that secrete enamel. Ammocoete [a˘m9Q-se¯t] (Gr., ammocoetes 5 something bedded in sand). The larva of the lamprey. Ammonia. The first breakdown product of nitrogen metabolism; very toxic and soluble in water and requires a high water turnover for its elimination; often converted to the less toxic urea, and the nontoxic and stable uric acid. Amnion [a˘m9ne¯-o˘n] (Gr., amnion 5 fetal membrane). The innermost of the extraembryonic membranes that surround the embryo and encase it in amniotic fluid. Amniote [a˘m9ne¯-o¯t]. A vertebrate the embryo of which has an amnion; tetrapods other than amphibians. See anamniote. Amphibians [a˘m-fı˘b9e¯-Qnz] (Gr., amphi 5 both, double 1 bios 5 life). A group of vertebrates including frogs, salamanders, and numerous fossil forms. Amphibians usually have aquatic larvae and terrestrial adults. See lissamphibians. Amphicoelous vertebra [a˘m-fQ-se¯9lQs] (Gr., koilma 5 hollow). A vertebral body that is concave on each surface. Amphistylic suspension [a˘m-fı˘-stı¯9lı˘k] (Gr., stylos 5 pillar). A type of jaw suspension in fishes in which the upper jaw is supported by connections to both the chondrocranium and hyoid arch. Ampulla [a˘m-p9l9Q] (L., 5 flask), pl. -pullae [-p9l9ı¯]. A small, membranous vesicle, such as that on the end of a semicircular duct. Ampullary organ. Ampulla-shaped electroreceptors in the skin of some fishes and amphibians, such as the ampullae of Lorenzini of sharks. Amygdala [Q-mı˘g9dQ-lQ] (Gr., amygdale 5 almond). A deep nucleus of gray matter in the cerebral hemisphere; part of the lateral pallium and limbic system. Anagenesis. Evolutionary change that does not involve branching (as opposed to cladogenesis). Usually used to refer to gradual changes within a species or a lineage. See cladogenesis, speciation. Analogy [a˘n-a˘l9Q-je¯] (Gr., analogia 5 correspondence). A functional similarity among nonhomologous organs. For example, the wing of a butterfly can be considered analogous (but not homologous) to the wing of a bird. A type of homoplasy. Anamniote [a˘n-a˘m9ne¯-o¯t] (Gr., an 5 without 1 amnion 5 fetal membrane). A vertebrate without an amnion, such as a fish or amphibian. Clearly a nonmonophyletic group (as in fish). See amniote. †Anapsid [a˘n-a˘p9sı˘d] (Gr., a, an 5 without 1 apsid 5 loop or bar). Without arches; a vertebrate skull with a complete roof of bone in the temporal region, or a taxonomic group of reptilian species (†Anapsida) with such a skull type. Anastomosis [a˘n-a˘s9tQ-mo¯9sis] (Gr., 5 opening, outlet). A peripheral union between blood vessels or other structures. Androgen [a˘n9dro¯-jQn] (Gr., aner, gen. andros 5 male). A hormone that promotes the development of male characteristics. Anestrus [a˘n-e˘s9trQs] (Gr., oistros 5 gadfly, frenzy). The nonbreeding period of sexually mature animals. Angle of attack. The angle at which the leading edge of a bird’s wing is elevated above the horizontal; an increase in angle of attack increases lift up to the stalling point. Antagonist [a˘n-ta˘g9Q-nı˘st] (Gr., anti 5 against 1 agona 5 contest). A structure, usually a muscle, that opposes or resists the action of another. Antebrachium [a˘n-tQ-bra¯9ke¯-Qm] (L., ante 5 before 1 brachium 5 arm). The forearm. Anterior chamber. The space within the eyeball located between the iris and cornea. Anterior commissure. An olfactory commissure within the cerebrum located just rostral to the columns of the fornix. See commissure. Antidiuretic hormone [a˘n9te¯-dı¯-y7-re˘t9ı˘k] (Gr., anti 5 against 1 dia 5 through 1 ouresis 5 urination). A hormone produced in the hypothalamus and stored and released from the neurohypophysis; promotes water reabsorption from part of the kidney tubule and so concentrates the urine. Antler [a˘nt9lQr] (L., ante 5 before 1 oculus 5 eye). One of the bony, branching, and deciduous horns of members of the deer family; usually restricted to males. Anura [a˘n-y9r9Q] (Gr., a 5 without 1 oura 5 tail). The amphibian taxon to which frogs belong; also called Salientia. Note: “Anura” is a taxon; “anurans” (a vernacular) refers to a group. Anus [a¯9nu˘s] (L., 5 anus). The caudal opening of the digestive tract. Aorta [a¯-ôr9tQ] (Gr., aorte 5 great artery). A large artery; if unspecified, the dorsal aorta that carries blood from the heart to the body. Aortic arches. Embryonic arteries that pass between the pharyngeal pouches as they carry blood from the ventral to the dorsal aorta. Apnea [a˘p9ne¯-Q] (Gr., a 5 without 1 pnoia 5 breathing). The cessation of breathing, during which the breath is held and the lungs are not ventilated. Apomorphic character. A character hypothesized to be uniquely derived for (i.e., diagnostic of) a particular monophyletic taxon. In evolutionary terms, an apomorphy would be a peculiar feature shared by the members of a monophyletic taxon that was inherited by each of those members from a hypothetical common ancestor. Some authors divide the term “apomorphy” into two subcategories: “autapomorphy” for terminal taxa (distal-most branches of a given cladogram), and “synapomorphy” for monophyletic groups of taxa (branch points of a given cladogram). Synapomorphy (shared derived character) is the most commonly used form. Synapomorphy is equivalent to phylogenetic homology or derived character. Examples: the presence of feathers for Aves (birds), the presence of jaws for Gnathostomata. See cladistics, derived character, homology. Apomorphy. [a˘p9o¯-môr-fe¯]. See apomorphic character. Aponeurosis [a˘p9o¯-ny9r-o¯9sis] (Gr., apo 5 away from 1 neuron 5 nerve, sinew). A sheetlike tendon of a muscle. Appendix (L., appendere 5 to hang upon). A dangling extension of another organ, such as the vermiform appendix on the caecum. Aqueduct of Sylvius (Franciscus Sylvius, 1614–1672, Dutch anatomist). See cerebral aqueduct. Aqueous humor [a¯9kwe¯-u˘s hy79mer] (L., aqua 5 water 1 humor 5 liquid). The lymphlike liquid filling the anterior and posterior chambers of the eye. Arachnoid [Q-ra˘k9noid] (Gr., arachne 5 spider 1 eidos 5 form). Tissue surrounding the central nervous system, lying peripheral to the pia mater and underlying the dura mater. Arbor vitae [är9bQr vı¯t9e¯] (L., arbor 5 tree 1 vita 5 life). The treelike configuration of white fibers entering and leaving the mammalian cerebellum. †Archaeornithes [är9ke¯-ôr9nQ-the¯z] (Gr., arche 5 beginning 1 oris 5 bird). A primitive group of birds, which includes †Archaeopteryx. Archenteron [ärk-e˘n9tQr-o˘n] (Gr., arche 5 origin, beginning 1 enteron 5 intestine, gut). The embryonic gut cavity, lined with endoderm. Archicerebellum [är9ke¯-se˘r-bQl9Qm] (Gr., cerebellum 5 small brain). The part of the cerebellum that receives vestibular impulses from the ear and impulses from the lateral line system; the flocculonodular lobes in mammals. Archinephric duct [är9kQ-nêf9rı˘k] (Gr., nephros 5 kidney). The first-formed kidney duct, which drains the kidney of most anamniotes and becomes the ductus deferens of male amniotes. Archinephros. See holonephros. Archipallium. See medial pallium. Archipterygium [är9ke¯-tQ-rı˘j9e¯-Qm] (Gr., ptery- 5 fin or wing). The paired fins of lungfishes in which radials extend from each side of a central axis; once believed to be the ancestral morphotype of paired fins. Archosaurs [är9ko¯-sôrz] (Gr., archon 5 ruler 1 sauros 5 lizard). The reptilian group (Archosauria) that includes the two extinct orders of dinosaurs, the extinct †pterosaurs (†flying reptiles), the contemporary crocodiles, and birds. Arcualia [är9ky7-a¯-le¯-Q] (L., arcus 5 bow, arch). Small arches of cartilage or bone that often contribute to the formation of a vertebra. Artery [är9tQr-e¯] (L., arteria 5 artery). A vessel that carries blood away from the heart. The blood may be high or low in oxygen content. Articular [är-tı˘k9yQ-lQr] (L., articulus 5 joint). Pertaining to a joint. Artiodactyls [är9te¯-o¯-da˘k9tQlz] (Gr., artios 5 even 1 daktylos 5 finger or toe). The mammalian group (Artiodactyla) that includes ungulates with an even number of toes: pigs, deer, cattle. Arytenoid cartilage [a˘r-Q-te¯9noid] (Gr., arytainoeides 5 ladle-shaped). The ladle-shaped cartilage of the mammalian larynx that attaches to and modifies the tension of the vocal cords. Aspiration pumping. A method of lung ventilation in which air is sucked into the lungs; occurs primarily in amniotes. Astrocytes [a˘s9tro¯-sı¯tz] (Gr., astron 5 star 1 kytos 5 hollow vessel or cell). Star-shaped nutritive and supportive glial cells of the central nervous system. Atlas [a˘t9lQs] (Gr. mythology, a god supporting the Earth upon his shoulders). The first cervical vertebra of terrestrial vertebrates, which articulates with the skull; nodding movements of the head occur between the atlas and skull. Atrium [a¯9tre¯-Qm] (L., 5 entrance hall). A chamber, such as the atrium of the heart, that receives blood from the sinus venosus or veins. Atrophy [a˘t9ro¯-fe¯] (Gr., a 5 without 1 trophe 5 nourishment). The decrease in size and sometimes loss of a structure. Auditory [ô9dı˘-tôr-e¯] (L., audio 5 to hear). Pertaining to the ear. Auditory tube. A tube that extends between the tympanic cavity (middle ear) and pharynx of most tetrapods and equalizes the air pressure on both sides of the tympanic membrane; homologous to the spiracle of fishes. Sometimes called the eustachian tube. Auricle [ô9rı˘-kQl] (L., auricula 5 external ear). The external flap of the mammalian ear. Also, an ear-shaped appendage on the atrium of mammals. Autonomic nervous system [ô9tQ-no˘m9ı˘k] (Gr., autos 5 self 1 nomos 5 law). The part of the nervous system carrying visceral motor fibers to the viscera and glands. Autostylic suspension [ô9to¯-stı¯9lı˘k] (Gr., stylos 5 pillar). A type of jaw suspension in which the upper jaw is attached to the rest of the skull by its own processes. Aves [a¯9ve¯z] (L., 5 birds). The vertebrate taxon that contains the birds. Axillary [a˘k9sQ-le˘r-e¯] (L., axilla 5 armpit). Pertaining to the armpit: axillary artery. Axis [a˘k9sis] (L., 5 axle, axis). The second cervical vertebra of mammals; rotary movements of the head occur between the axis and atlas. Axon [a˘k9so˘n9] (Gr., 5 axle, axis). The long, slender process of a neuron specialized for the transmission of nerve impulses. Azygos vein [a¯-zı¯9gQs] (Gr., a 5 without 1 zygon 5 yoke). An unpaired vein that drains most of the intercostal spaces on both sides of the mammalian thorax. B Basal lamina. The thin layer, or lamina, of matrix that underlies epithelial surfaces; composed primarily of collagen fibrils that do not organize as fibers; formerly called the basement membrane. Basal nuclei. A group of nuclei in the striatum of the mammalian cerebrum. Basapophysis [ba¯9zQ-po˘f9Q-sı˘s] (Gr., basis 5 base 1 apo 5 away from 1 phys 5 growth). A transverse process low on a vertebral body to which a subperitoneal rib of a fish attaches; serially homologous to a hemal arch. Biceps [bı¯9se˘ps] (L., bi 5 two 1 ceps 5 head). A structure with two heads, such as the biceps muscle. Bicornuate [bı¯-kôr9ny7-a¯t] (L., cornu 5 horn). A structure with two horns, such as a bicornuate uterus. Bile [bı¯l] (L., bilis 5 bile). The secretion of the liver, containing bile pigments and fat-emulsifying bile salts. Biped [bı¯9pe˘d] (L., bi 5 two 1 pes, gen. pedis 5 foot). A tetrapod that stands upright, such as a human. Bladder. A membranous sac filled with air or liquid. Blastocoele [bla˘s9to¯-se¯l] (Gr., blastos 5 bud 1 koilos 5 hollow). A cavity of the blastula that becomes obliterated during gastrulation and mesoderm formation. Blastocyst [bla˘s9to¯-sı˘st] (Gr., kystis 5 bladder). The modified blastula of a eutherian mammal. Blastodisk [bla˘s9to¯-dı˘sk] (Gr., diskos 5 disk). The disk of cells formed during cleavage that lies on the top of the yolk of large-yolked eggs of fishes and reptiles (including birds) and on the top of the yolk sac of mammals. Blastomere [bla˘s9to¯-mîr] (Gr., meros 5 part). One of the cells of the blastula. Blastopore [bla˘s9to¯-pôr] (Gr., poros 5 pore). The opening into the archenteron that is formed during gastrulation. Blastula [bla˘s9tyu¯-lQ] (L., diminutive of Gr. blastos 5 bud). The ball of cells formed during cleavage, usually containing a blastocoele. Blood. The liquid circulating in the arteries, capillaries, and veins, consisting of a liquid plasma and cellular elements. Blood–brain barrier. The structural and physiological barriers that regulate the exchange of materials between the blood, brain tissue, and cerebrospinal fluid. Bone. The hard, skeletal material of vertebrates that consists of collagen fibers to which calcium phosphate crystals are bound, usually arranged in alternating layers of matrix and bone-forming cells. Bony fishes. See osteichthyes. Boundary layer. The layer of water or air surrounding a moving aquatic or flying animal in which shear forces occur; causes frictional drag. Bowman’s capsule. (Sir William Bowman, British anatomist, 1816–1892). See renal capsule. Brachial [bra¯9ke¯-Ql] (L., brachium 5 upper arm). Pertaining to the upper arm; armlike. Brachium conjunctivum [ko˘n-ju˘ngk-tı¯9vQm] (L., conjungo, pp. conjunctus 5 to join together). The most cranial cerebellar peduncle; an armlike neuronal tract of mammals through which impulses enter and leave the cerebellum. Brachium pontis [po˘n9tı˘s] (L., pons, gen. pontis, 5 bridge). The middle cerebellar peduncle of mammals carrying impulses into the cerebellum from the pons. Brain. The enlarged cranial portion of the central nervous system enclosed by the cranium; the major integrative center of the central nervous system. Braincase. The cartilages and bones that encase the brain. Brainstem. The brain exclusive of the cerebellum and forebrain (diencephalon and cerebrum). Branchial [bra˘ng9ke¯-Ql] (Gr., branchia 5 gills). Pertaining to the gills. Branchial arches. Those visceral arches (numbers 3–7) that support the gills in fishes. Branchiomeres [brang9ke¯-o¯-me¯rz] (Gr., meros 5 part). The embryonic branchial segments lying between the pharyngeal pouches, including a visceral arch and associated muscle and nerves. Most also contain an aortic arch. Branchiomeric. Pertaining to muscles and other structures associated with the visceral arches. Bronchus, pl. bronchi [bro˘ng9ku˘s] (Gr., bronchos 5 windpipe). A branch of the trachea that enters the lungs. Buccal [bu˘k9al] (L., bucca 5 cheek). Pertaining to the mouth, as in buccal cavity. Bulbourethral glands [bu˘l9bo¯-y7-re¯9thrQl] (L., bulbus 5 a bulbous root 1 Gr., ourethra 5 urethra). Accessory sex glands of male mammals that are located near the base of the penis and discharge into the urethra. Bulla [b9l9Q] (L., 5 bubble). A bubble-like expansion of some structure, such as the tympanic bulla on the temporal bone. Bunodont [b79no¯-do˘nt] (Gr., bounos 5 mound 1 odont- 5 tooth). Molar teeth with low, rounded cusps. Bursa [bûr9sQ] (L., 5 purse). A saclike cavity. Bursa of Fabricius (Giralamo Fabricius, Italian anatomist and embryologist, 1533–1619). A dorsal cloacal diverticulum of birds, site of the maturation of B lymphocytes. C Caecilians [se¯-sı˘l9e¯-Qnz] (L., caecilia 5 blindworm). Tropical wormlike burrowing amphibians of the taxon Gymnophiona. Caecum [se¯9kQm] (L., caecus 5 blind). A blind-ending pouch attached to part of the intestine, such as the one at the beginning of the mammalian large intestine. Calcaneus [ka˘l-ka¯9ne¯-Qs] (L., 5 heel). The large proximal tarsal bone that forms the “heel bone” of mammals. Calcitonin [ka˘l-sı˘-to¯9nı˘n] (L., calx 5 lime 1 Gr., tonos 5 tension). A hormone produced by the C cells of the ultimobranchial bodies or thyroid gland; its actions oppose those of parathormone, for it promotes the deposition of calcium in bone and reduces its level in the blood. Calyx, pl. calyces [ka¯9lı˘ks, ka¯l9ı˘-se¯z] (Gr., kalyx 5 cup). A cuplike compartment, such as the renal calyces or subdivisions of the renal pelvis. Canaliculi [ka˘n9Q-lı˘k9y7-lı¯] (L., canaliculi 5 small channels). Small canals in bone matrix that contain the processes of the osteocytes. Canine [ka¯9nı¯n] (L., canis 5 dog). The mammalian tooth behind the incisors, usually longer than other teeth. Cantilever. A projecting beam or other structure that is supported at only one end. Capillary [ka˘p9Q-le˘r9e¯] (L., capillus 5 hair). One of the minute blood vessels between arteries and veins through which exchanges between the blood and tissue fluids occur. Capitulum [kQ-pîch9yQ-lQm] (L., 5 small head). A small, articulating knob on the end of a bone, such as a rib. †Captorhinida [ka˘p9to¯-rı¯9nı˘d-Q] (L., capus 5 capture 1 Gr., rhis 5 nose). An early, extinct group of primitive Sauropsida. Carapace [kâr9Q-pa¯s] (Spanish, carapacho 5 covering). The dorsal shell of a turtle; the chitinous covering of a crustacean. Cardiac [kär9de¯-a˘k] (Gr., kardia 5 heart). Pertaining to the heart. Cardinal vein [kär9dQn-Ql] (L., cardinalis 5 principal). One of the principal veins of embryonic vertebrates and adult anamniotes. Carnassials [kär-na˘s9e¯-Qlz] (L., caro, gen. carnis 5 flesh). The specialized shearing teeth of carnivores; the fourth upper premolar and first lower molar. Carnivore [kär9nQ-vôrz] (L., -vorous 5 devouring). An animal that feeds on other animals. Carotid [kQ-ro˘t9ı˘d] (Gr., karotides 5 large neck artery, from karoo 5 to put to sleep, because compressing the artery causes unconsciousness). Pertaining to a large artery in the neck or to nearby structures. Carpal [kär9pQl] (Gr., karpos 5 wrist). One of the small bones of the wrist. Cartilage [kär9tQl-Qj] (Gr., cartilago 5 cartilage). A firm but elastic skeletal tissue the matrix of which contains proteoglycan molecules that bind with water. Occurs in all embryos, in adult cartilaginous fishes, and in parts of the skeleton of other vertebrates providing firmness as well as flexibility. Cartilage-replacement bone. Bone that develops within and around the embryonic endoskeleton. Cartilaginous fish. See chondrichthyes. Caudal [kôd9l] (L., cauda 5 tail). Pertaining to the tail. Caudata [kô9dä-tQ]. The amphibian group that includes the salamanders. Cecum. See caecum. Cenozoic. The era of geologic time ranging from about 65 million years before the present to the present. Center of buoyancy. The point in the body of an aquatic vertebrate through which the resultant force of buoyancy acts. Center of gravity. The point in the body of an animal through which the resultant force of gravity acts. Central nervous system. That part of the nervous system located in the longitudinal axis of the body; consists of the brain and spinal cord. Central pattern generator. Groups of neurons in the spinal cord and brain the activity of which is responsible for innate, cyclical movements of body parts, as occur in swimming and walking. Centrum [se˘n9trQm] (Gr., kentron 5 center). The central part of the vertebral complex, lying ventral to the vertebral or neural arch. Cephalic [se˘-fa˘l9ı˘k] (Gr., kephale 5 head). Pertaining to the head. Cephalization [se˘f9Q-lı˘-za¯9shQn]. The development of a well-defined head. Cephalochordata [sêf9Q-lo¯-kôr-dä9tQ] (L., chordata 5 string). The taxon of chordates that includes amphioxus. Ceratotrichia [se˘r9Q-to¯-trı˘k9e¯-Q] (Gr., kerat- 5 horn 1 trich- 5 hair). The horny fin rays of Chondrichthyes. Cerebellum [se˘r9Q-be˘l9Qm] (L., 5 small brain). The dorsal part of the metencephalon, which is a center for motor coordination. Cerebral aqueduct [se˘9rQ-brQl] (L., cerebrum 5 brain). The narrow passage within the brain that extends between the third and fourth ventricles; also called the aqueduct of Sylvius. Cerebral hemispheres (Gr., hemi 5 half 1 sphaira 5 globe, ball). The pair of hemispheres that form most of the telencephalon. They are the major integrating centers of the brain in mammals. Cerebrospinal fluid. A lymphlike fluid that circulates within and around the central nervous system, which it helps protect and nourish. Cerebrum. The two cerebral hemispheres of the brain in vertebrates. Cervical [sûr9vı˘-kQl] (L., cervix 5 neck). Pertaining to the neck. Cervix [sûr9vı˘ks]. The necklike portion of an organ, such as the neck of the uterus. Character. Any feature that is an observable part or attribute of an organism. Congruent characters that diagnose groups of organisms are conjectures of homology, or synapomorphies. See congruence, homology, synapomorphy. Cheek teeth. A collective term for premolar and molar teeth of mammals. Cheiropterygium [kı¯-ro¯-tQ-rı˘j9e¯-Qm] (Gr., chiro- 5 hand 1 pteryg- 5 fin or wing). The paired appendage of a terrestrial vertebrate. Chelonia [kQ-lo¯9ne¯-Q] (Gr., chelone 5 tortoise). The taxon to which turtles belong. Chimaera [kı¯-mîr9Q] (Gr., chimaira 5 monster). A cartilaginous fish belonging to Holocephali. Choana [ko¯-a˘n9Q] (Gr., choane 5 funnel). One of the paired openings from the nasal cavities into the pharynx; an internal nostril. Chondrichthyes [ko˘n-drı˘k9thı˘-e¯z] (Gr., chondros 5 cartilage 1 ichthyos 5 fish). The cartilaginous fishes, including sharks, skates, rays, and chimaeras. Chondroblast. An early embryonic cell that is destined to produce cartilage. Chondrocranium [ko˘n9dro¯-kra¯9ne¯-Qm] (Gr., chondros 5 cartilage 1 kranion 5 skull). Cartilages that encase the brain and major sense organs in embryos and the adults of some vertebrates, also called the neurocranium. Chondrocyte [ko˘n9dro¯-sı¯t] (Gr., kytos 5 hollow vessel or cell). A mature cartilage cell; develops from a chondroblast. Chondrosteans [ko˘n-drôs9te¯-Qnz] (Gr., osteon 5 bone). A primitive group of actinopterygians, including the contemporary sturgeons and paddlefishes. Chordamesoderm [kôr9dQ-me˘z9o¯-dûrm]. The longitudinal, mid-dorsal group of mesodermal cells that moves into the roof of the archenteron during gastrulation and gives rise to the notochord. Chordates [kôr9da¯ts]. The group to which tunicates, amphioxus, and craniates belong; characterized by having a notochord at least at some stage of their life cycle. Chorion [kô9re¯-o˘n] (Gr., chorion 5 skinlike membrane enclosing the fetus). The outermost extraembryonic membrane of amniotes. Choroid [kôr9oid] (Gr., chorioeides 5 like a membrane). The highly vascularized middle tunic of the eyeball that lies between the fibrous tunic and the retina. Choroid plexus [plêk9sQs] (L., plexus 5 network). The vascular network of the telachoroidea that secretes the cerebrospinal fluid; it may invaginate into certain ventricles or evaginate into the space around the brain. Chromaffin cells [kro¯9mQ-fı˘n] (Gr., chromo- 5 color 1 L., affinis 5 affinity). Cells in the medulla of the adrenal gland of neural crest origin that secrete norepinephrine and epinephrine and have an affinity for chromic stains. Chromatophore [kro¯-ma˘t9Q-fôr] (Gr., phoros 5 bearing, from pherein 5 to bear). A vertebrate cell of neural crest origin that carries pigment or reflective granules. Cilia [sı˘l9e¯-Q] (L., cilia 5 hairs). Minute, movable processes of some epithelial cells that contain a characteristic pattern of nine peripheral and two central microtubules. Ciliary body. A part of the vascular tunic of the eyeball that secretes the aqueous humor and contains muscle fibers used in focusing the eye. Circadian rhythm [sQr-ka¯9de¯-Qn] (L., circa 5 about 1 dies 5 day). A metabolic or behavioral pattern with a cycle of approximately 24 hours. Cisterna chyli [sı˘-stûr9nQ kı¯l9e¯] (L., cisterna 5 an underground reservoir, cistern 1 Gr., chylos 5 juice). The sac that receives lymph from the viscera and caudal parts of the body. Clade. A monophyletic group (as monophyletic is used here). Cladistics [klQ-dı˘s9tı˘ks] (Gr., clados 5 branch). A method of investigating evolutionary relationships. Cladistics does not generally try to identify specific ancestors but rather attempts to interpret the relative interrelationships among taxa by calculating the most efficient (i.e., most “parsimonious”) hierarch-ical arrangement of an empirical data set. The data consist of characters thought to be uniquely derived for particular groups (e.g., the presence of vertebrae in vertebrates, the presence of jaws in gnathostomes, the presence of feathers in birds). Congruent data (homologies or synapomorphies) and parsimony are used to make cladograms and phylogenetic trees. Cladistics is currently the most widely used method of investigating evolutionary relationships. See character, congruence, homology, parsimony, synapomorphy. Cladogenesis. A process theory of lineage multiplication involving branching (i.e., splitting) and divergence between species over time. See anagenesis, speciation. Cladogram. A type of branching diagram that uses a hierarchical organization of data to construct a putative phylogeny of taxa. The characters on a cladogram that exhibit congruence are thought to be indicative of evolutionary relationship. These characters are termed apomorphies or synapomorphies. For example, feathers are thought to be uniquely derived for birds (and their presence in all birds is hypothesized to be due to inheritance from a common ancestor). See apomorphy, cladistics, hierarchy, monophyletic group, parsimony. Clasper. The modified part of the pelvic fin of male chondrichthyan fishes used to transfer sperm to the female. Clavicle [kla˘v9ı˘-kQl] (L., clavicula 5 small key, nail). A dermal bone of the pectoral girdle extending medially from the scapula to the interclavicle or sternum. Cleavage [kle¯9vı˘j]. The mitotic divisions by which the single-celled zygote is converted to a multicellular blastula of the same size. Cleidoic egg [klı¯-do¯9ı˘k] (Gr., kleid- 5 clavicle, key). The self-contained eggs of amniotes in which a free larval stage is bypassed; modified in viviparous species. Cleithrum [klı¯9thrQm] (Gr., kleithron 5 bar). A bar-shaped dermal element of the pectoral girdle of some fishes and early tetrapods; located dorsal to the clavicle. Clitoris [klı˘t9Qr-ı˘s] (Gr., kleitoris 5 hill). The small erectile organ of a female mammal that corresponds to the male glans penis and corpora cavernosa penis. Cloaca [klo¯-a¯9kQ] (L., cloaca 5 sewer). The posterior chamber of most fishes, nonmammalian tetrapods, and monotreme mammals into which the digestive tract and urogenital passages discharge. Coccyx [ko˘k9sı˘ks] (Gr., kokkyx 5 cuckoo). Several fused caudal vertebrae of humans; does not reach the body surface but serves for the attachment of certain muscles. Cochlea [ko˘k9le¯-Q] (L., 5 snail shell). The snail-shaped part of the mammalian inner ear, consisting of the cochlear duct and the scala vestibuli and scala tympani. Cochlear duct. The duct within the cochlea that is a part of the membranous labyrinth and contains the receptive cells for sound. Coelacanths [se¯9lQ-ka˘nths] (Gr., koilos 5 hollow 1 akantha 5 spine). A group of sarcopterygian fishes with a long diverse fossil record going back several hundred million years but represented today by only a single living species. Coelom [se¯9lQm] (Gr., koiloma 5 a hollow). A body cavity that is completely lined by an epithelium of mesodermal derivation. Collagen [ko˘l9Q-jQn] (Gr., kolla 5 glue 1 genos 5 descent). A protein produced by fibroblasts; forms most of the extracellular fibers of connective tissues and skeletal tissues. It is composed of ultramicroscopic fibrils that usually are organized into fibers that differ in size among the types of collagen. Collecting ducts. The small tubules that receive material from the kidney tubules and lead to the renal pelvis or urinary duct. Colliculus, pl. colliculi [kQ-lı˘k9y7-lQs] (L., 5 little hill). One of the small elevations on the dorsal surface of the mesencephalon of mammals that is a center for certain optic (superior colliculus) or auditory (inferior colliculus) reflexes. Colon [ko¯9lQn] (Gr., kolon 5 colon). The large intestine of tetrapods exclusive of the caecum and rectum. Columella [ko˘l9yQ-me˘l9Q] (L., 5 small column). The single, rod-shaped auditory ossicle of nonmammalian tetrapods that transmits vibrations from the tympanic membrane to the inner ear; called the stapes in mammals. Commissure [ko˘m9Q-sh9r] (L., commissura 5 seam). A band of nervous tissue, or a sensory canal, that crosses the midline of the body. Neuronal commissures interconnect comparable structures of the two sides of the central nervous system. See decussation. Common bile duct. The principal duct carrying bile to the intestine, formed by the confluence of hepatic ducts from the liver and, when present, the cystic duct from the gallbladder. Compression. A stress that results when two parallel forces move toward each other. Concha [ko˘ng9kQ] (Gr., konkhe 5 seashell). One of several folds within the mammalian nasal cavities that increase their surface area; also called a turbinate bone. Condyle [ko˘n9dı¯l] (Gr., kondylos 5 knuckle). Any convexly rounded articular surface, such as the occipital condyles of most vertebrates or mandibular condyles of mammals. Congruent. Nonconflicting. Congruent data are those data that fit together hierarchically, with no conflict. The degree of congruence is dependent on the percentage of total characters in a data set that are congruent with each other. See hierarchy. Conjunctiva [ko˘n-ju˘ngk-tı¯9vQ] (L., conjunctus 5 joined together). The epithelial layer that lines the eyelids and reflects over the cornea. Connective tissue. A widespread body tissue characterized by an extensive extracellular matrix of fibers. It connects other tissues and supports the body; includes fibrous tissue, fat, cartilage, and bone. Contralateral. Descriptive of a structure that is located on the opposite side of the body from the point of reference. Conus arteriosus [ko¯9nQs är-tîr9e¯-o¯9sQs]. The fourth chamber of the heart of most fishes that extends between the ventricle and the ventral aorta. Convergence. For phylogenetic context, see homoplasy. In neuroanatomy, this term refers to multiple neurons or receptor cells projecting to a smaller number of target cells. Convergent evolution. See homoplasy. Coprodaeum [ko˘p-ro¯-de¯9Qm] (Gr., kopros 5 dung 1 hodaion 5 way). The portion of the cloaca that receives the feces. Coprophagy [ko˘-pro˘f9Q-je¯] (Gr., phagein 5 to eat). The reingestion of feces; characteristic behavior of many rodents and lagomorphs. Coracoid [kôr9Q-koid] (Gr., korax 5 crow 1 eidos 5 form). A cartilage-replacement bone that forms the posteroventral part of the pectoral girdle, reduced to a small process shaped like a crow’s beak in therians. Cornea [kôr9ne¯-Q] (L., corneus 5 horny). The transparent part of the fibrous tunic at the front of the eyeball. Cornua [kôr9n7-Q] (L., 5 horns). Hornlike processes of a structure, such as the cornua of the hyoid bone. Corpora quadrigemina [kôr9pQr-Q kwo˘d9rQ-je˘m9Q-nQ] (L., corpus, pl., corpora, 5 body 1 quadrigeminus 5 fourfold). A collective term for the paired superior and inferior colliculi on the roof of the mesencephalon of mammals. Corpus callosum [kôr9pQs kQ-lo¯9sQm] (L., callosus 5 hard). The large commissure interconnecting the two cerebral hemispheres. Corpus cavernosum penis [ka˘v9Qr-no¯9sQm pe¯9nQs] (L., caverna 5 hollow place). One of a pair of columns of erectile tissue that forms much of the penis. Corpus luteum [l7-te¯9Qm] (L., luteus 5 yellow). The hard, yellowish body that develops from an ovulated follicle and acts as an endocrine gland. Corpus spongiosum penis. A column of erectile tissue that surrounds the penile portion of the urethra. Corpus striatum. See striatum. Cortex [kôr9te˘ks] (L., 5 bark). A layer of distinctive tissue on the surface of an organ, such as the adrenal cortex or the cerebral cortex. Cortisol [kôr9tı˘-sôl]. A hormone produced by the adrenal cortex that helps regulate carbohydrate metabolism. Cosmine [ko˘z9me¯n] (Gr., kosmios 5 well ordered). A type of dentine found in certain bony scales in which there are dentine tubules grouped into radiating tufts. Cosmoid scale. A thick, bony scale with a conspicuous layer of cosmine, characteristic of early sarcopterygians. Costal [ko˘s9tQl] (L., costa 5 rib). Pertaining to the ribs. Cowper’s gland (William Cowper, British anatomist, 1666–1709). See bulbourethral gland. Cranial kinesis [kı˘-ne¯9sı˘s] (Gr., kinesis 5 movement). Movement of parts of the skull, exclusive of the lower jaw, relative to each other, occurs during feeding in many nonmammalian vertebrates. Craniate. [kra¯9ne¯-a¯te] (Gr., kranien 5 skull or braincase). The subgroup of chordates in which the brain is encased in a cranium; includes the hagfishes and vertebrates. Cranium [kra¯9ne¯-u˘m]. The skull, especially the part encasing the brain. Cremasteric pouch [kre¯9mQ-ste˘r9ı˘k] (Gr., kremaster 5 suspender). Layers of the body wall that suspend the testis; the scrotal wall apart from the skin. Cribriform plate [krı˘b9rQ-fôrm] (L., cribrum 5 sieve 1 forma 5 shape). The perforated portion of the sphenoid bone through which groups of olfactory neurons pass. Cricoid cartilage [krı¯9koid] (Gr., krikos 5 ring 1 eidos 5 form). Ring-shaped cartilage of the mammalian larynx. Crop. The distal part of the esophagus of certain birds, especially grain-eating species, that stores food. Crossopterygians [krôs9o˘p-tQ-rı˘j9e¯-a˘nz] (Gr., krossoi 5 tassels 1 pteryg- 5 fin or wing). A collective name sometimes used for three groups of sarcopterygians: coelacanths, rhipidistians, and tetrapods. Some earlier authors use this term in a nonmonophyletic sense by excluding tetrapods. Crus, pl. crura [kr7s, kr9r9Q] (L., 5 leg). The lower leg, shank, or shin of a tetrapod. Crypt of Lieberkühn (Johann N. Lieberkühn, German anatomist, 1711–1756). Glandlike invaginations from the small intestine of mammals; epithelial cells multiply here, spread over the intestinal lining to replace worn-out cells, and some release digestive enzymes. Ctenoid scale [te˘n9oid] (Gr., ktenoeides 5 like a cock’s comb). A thin, bony scale having comblike processes on its posterior margin. Cupula [ky79pyQ-lQ] (L., a small tub). A cup-shaped, jelly-like secretion that caps the group of hair cells in a neuromast. Cursorial [kûr-sôr9e¯-Ql] (L., cursor 5 runner). Pertaining to a vertebrate specialized for running. Cutaneous [ky7-ta¯9ne¯-Qs] (L., cutis 5 skin). Pertaining to the skin. Cycloid scale [sı¯9kloid] (Gr., kyklos 5 circle). A thin, bony scale having a smooth surface and rounded margins. Cyclostome [sı¯9klo¯-sto¯m] (Gr., stoma 5 mouth). A nonmonophyletic group of convenience used to refer to Petromyzontiformes (lampreys) and Myxiniformes (hagfishes). Thought to be nonmonophyletic by most systematic ichthyologists. Cystic duct [sı˘s9tı˘k] (Gr., kystis 5 bladder). The duct of the gallbladder. D Deciduous [dı˘-sı˘d9y7-Qs] (L., deciduus 5 falling off). Teeth (or other elements) that are shed, e.g., the first set of teeth of a mammal, which are replaced by the permanent teeth. Decussation [de˘k9Q-sa¯9shQn] (L., decusso, pp. decussatus 5 to divide crosswise in an X). The crossing of neuronal tracts in the midline of the central nervous system. Decussations generally do not connect comparable parts of the two sides of the central nervous system. See commissure. Defecation [de˘f9ı˘-ka¯9shQn] (L., defaeco, pp. defaecatus 5 to remove the dregs). The elimination of undigested residue and bacteria from the digestive tract. Deferent duct [de˘f9Qr-Qnt] (L., defero, pres.p. deferens 5 to carry away). The sperm duct of amniotes, homologous to the archinephric duct of anamniotes. Delamination [de¯-la˘m9Q-na¯9shQn] (L., de 5 from 1 lamina 5 small plate). The splitting off of cells to form a new layer. Dendrite [de˘n9drı¯t] (Gr., dendrites 5 relating to a tree). Branching neuronal processes that receive nerve impulses. Density. The mass or weight of a body divided by its volume. Dentine [de˘n-te¯n9] (L., dens, gen. dentis 5 tooth). Bone-like material that forms the substance of a tooth deep to the superficial enamel. Derived character. A character thought to have been uniquely evolved for a particular group (e.g., feathers for birds and closely related species; mammary glands for mammals); also called an apomorphic or synapomorphic character. See character, primitive character. Dermal bones [dûr9mQl] (Gr., derma 5 skin). Superficial bones that lie in or just beneath the skin and develop from the direct deposition of bone in connective tissue; also called membrane bones. Dermal denticle [de˘n9tı˘-kQl] (L., denticulus 5 small tooth). A small, toothlike scale often found in the skin of cartilaginous fishes; also called a placoid scale. Dermatocranium [dûr-mQ-to¯-kra¯9ne¯-Qm] (Gr., kranion 5 skull). The portion of the skull composed of dermal bones. Dermatome [dûr9mQ-to¯m] (Gr., tone 5 a cutting). The lateral portion of a somite, which will form the dermis of the skin. Dermis [dûr9mı˘s]. The dense connective tissue layer of the skin deep to the epidermis. Deuterostome [d79tQ-ro¯-sto¯m] (Gr., deuteros 5 second 1 stoma 5 mouth). The group of coelomate animals in which the stomodaeum rather than the blastopore forms the adult mouth; includes echinoderms and chordates. Diagnose (with regard to taxa). To define a group so it can be distinguished from all other groups within a particular taxon. Diaphragm [dı¯9Q-fra˘m] (Gr., dia 5 through, across 1 phragma 5 a partition wall). The membranous and muscular partition between the thoracic and the abdominal cavities in mammals. Diaphysis [dı¯-a˘f9ı˘-sı˘s] (Gr., physis 5 growth). The shaft of a limb bone. Diapophysis [dı¯-Q-po˘f9ı˘-sı˘s] (Gr., apo 5 away from 1 physis 5 growth). A transverse process that extends from the vertebral arch and receives the tuberculum of a rib. Diapsid [dı¯-a˘p9sı˘d] (Gr., di- 5 two 1 apsis 5 arch). Pertaining to a reptilian skull in which two temporal fenestrae and two arches of bone are present, or to a reptile with such a skull. Diarthrosis [dı¯9är-thro¯9sı˘s] (Gr., arthron 5 joint). A joint allowing considerable movement between the elements, including a hinge action, sliding, and rotation. Diastole [dı¯-a˘s9tQ-le¯] (Gr., 5 dilation). The period during which the ventricle of the heart relaxes and fills with blood. Diencephalon [dı¯9e˘n-se˘f9Q-lo˘n] (Gr., dia 5 through, across 1 enkephalos 5 brain). The region of the brain between the telencephalon and mesencephalon, consisting of the epithalamus, thalamus, and hypothalamus. Digit [dı˘j9ı˘t] (L., digitus 5 digit). A finger or toe. Digitigrade [dı˘j9ı˘-tı˘-gra¯d] (L., gradus 5 step). Walking with the heel and ankle raised off the ground so only the digits bear the body weight. Diphycercal tail [dı˘f9ı˘9sûr9kQl] (Gr., diphyes 5 twofold 1 kerkos 5 tail). A caudal fin in which the vertebral axis is straight and divides the fin margin into roughly symmetrical upper and lower lobes. Diphyodont [dı¯-fı¯9Q-do˘nt] (Gr., di- 5 two 1 phyo 5 to produce 1 odont- 5 tooth). Pertaining to mammals with two sets of teeth, deciduous and permanent. Diplospondyly [dı˘p9lo¯-spo˘n9dQ-le¯] (Gr., diploos 5 double 1 spondylos 5 vertebra). A condition in which two vertebral centra per body segment are present; found in some early tetrapods and the caudal region of some fishes. Dipnoan [dı˘p9no¯-Qn] (Gr., di- 1 pnoe 5 breath). Lungfish. Divergence. In neuroanatomy, a neuronal pathway that projects to many targets. Dorsal pallium [pa˘l9e¯-Qm] (L., pallium 5 cloak). The dorsal-most part of the pallium, forms the isocortex in mammals. Drag. The resistance to the movement of an animal through the water or air in which it lives. Duct [du˘kt] (L., ductus 5 conveyance, channel). A small, tubular passage. Duct of Cuvier (Baron Georges Cuvier, 18th-century French scientist). The common cardinal vein. Ductus arteriosus [du˘k9tQs är-tîr9e¯-o¯9sQs]. The dorsal part of the sixth aortic arch, may serve as a bypass of the lungs in larval or fetal stages. Ductus venosus [vQ9no¯9sQs]. An embryonic connection between the umbilical vein and the caudal vena cava; bypasses the hepatic sinusoids. Duodenum [d79o¯-de¯9nQm] (L., duodeni 5 12 each). The first portion of the tetrapod small intestine, which is 12 fingerbreadths long in humans. Dura mater [d9r9Q ma¯9tQr] (L., 5 hard mother). The dense outer meninx surrounding the mammalian central nervous system. E Ear [e¯r] (Anglo-Saxon, eare 5 ear). The organ of hearing. Ectoderm [e˘k9to¯-dûrm] (Gr., ektos 5 outside 1 derma 5 skin). The outermost of the three embryonic germ layers; forms the epidermis, nervous system, and neural crest. Ectothermy [e˘k9to¯-thûrm-e¯] (Gr., thermos 5 heat). A condition in which an animal derives its body heat primarily from the external environment, so its body temperature is about the same as the ambient temperature; also known as poikilothermy. Effector [ı˘-fe˘k9tQr] (L., 5 producer). Any organ or cell that responds in some way to a stimulus. Efferent [e˘f9Qr-Qnt] (L., ex 5 out 1 fero, pres.p. ferens 5 to carry). Pertaining to structures that carry something away from a point of reference, such as efferent neurons leading from the central nervous system. Efferent ductules. Minute, sperm-transporting ducts; the cords of the urogenital union in anamniotes and mesonephric tubules in the head of the epididymis in amniotes. Egest [e¯-je˘st9] (L., egestus 5 taken out). The elimination of material from the caudal end of the digestive tract; also called defecation. Elasmobranchs [e¯-la˘z9mo¯-brangks] (Gr., elasmos 5 thin plate 1 branchia 5 gills). The taxonomic group of cartilaginous fishes that includes sharks, skates, and rays. Electric organ. An organ composed of modified muscle or glandular tissue that produces electric currents. Electric organs are used for electrolocation, defense, and communication; found primarily in certain fishes. Electroplaque [e¯-le˘k9tro¯-pla˘k] (Gr., electron 5 amber, from which electricity can be produced by friction 1 French, plaque 5 plate). The plates of modified muscular tissue that form the electric organs of some fishes. Embryo [e˘m9bre¯-o¯] (Gr., embryon 5 ingrowing). An early stage in the development of an organism that is dependent for energy and nutrients on materials stored within itself or obtained from a mother; embryos are not free living. Empirical. Based on experimental and/or descriptive data. Enamel [e¯-na˘m9Ql] (Middle English, amel 5 enamel). The very hard material on the surface of teeth and some bony scales; consists almost entirely of crystals of hydroxyapatite. Endocrine glands [e˘n9do¯-krı˘n] (Gr., endo 5 within 1 krino 5 to separate). Ductless glands that discharge their secretions (hormones) into the blood. Endoderm [e˘n9do¯-dQrm] (Gr., derma 5 skin). The innermost of the three germ layers; forms the lining of most of the digestive and respiratory tracts and glandular cells derived from these structures. Endolymph [e˘n9do¯-lı˘mf] (L., lympha 5 liquid). The liquid within the membranous labyrinth. Endometrium [e˘n9do¯-me¯9tre¯-Qm] (Gr., metra 5 womb). The mucous membrane lining the uterus. Endoskeleton [e˘n9do¯-ske˘l9ı˘-tn]. The part of the skeleton that lies deep within the body wall, appendages, and pharynx; composed of cartilage or cartilage-replacement bone. Endostyle [e˘n9do¯-stı¯l] (Gr., stylos 5 pillar). An elongated, ciliated groove in the pharynx floor of tunicates and amphioxus. Endothelium [e˘n9do¯-the¯9le¯-Qm] (Gr., thele 5 delicate skin). Delicate epithelium lining blood vessels and the heart. Endothermy [e˘n9do¯-thûr9me¯] (Gr., therme 5 heat). A condition in which an animal derives its body heat from internal metabolic processes, so it maintains a high and relatively constant body temperature despite variations in ambient temperature; also known as homiothermic. Enterocoele [e˘n9tQ-ro¯-se¯l9] (Gr., enteron 5 gut 1 koilos 5 hollow). A coelom that develops primitively as buds from the gut cavity. Epaxial [Qp-a˘k9se¯-Ql] (Gr., epi 5 upon 1 axon 5 axle, axis). Pertaining to structures that lie above or beside the vertebral axis. Ependymal epithelium [ı˘-pen9dQ-mQl] (Gr., ependyma 5 garment). The epithelial layer that lines the central nervous system. Epiboly [e¯-pı˘b9Q-le¯] (Gr., epibole 5 act of throwing on). The spreading of animal hemisphere cells over vegetal hemisphere cells during the gastrulation of some vertebrates. Epidermis [e˘p-ı˘-dûr9mı˘s] (Gr., epi 5 upon 1 derma 5 skin). The epithelial layer that forms the surface of the skin. Epididymis [e˘p9ı˘-dı˘d9Q-mı˘s] (Gr., didymoi 5 testes). A band of tissue on the amniote testis that is homologous to the cranial part of the opisthonephros and part of the archinephric duct of anamniotes. Epiglottis [e˘p9ı˘-glo˘t9ı˘s] (Gr., glottis 5 entrance to the windpipe). The flap of fibrocartilage that deflects food around the entrance of the mammalian larynx. Epimere. See somite. Epinephrine [ep9Q-nef9rin] (Gr., epi- 5 upon 1 nephros 5 kidney). The hormone produced by the adrenal medulla; it resembles norepinephrine produced by the postganglionic sympathetic neurons and it helps the body adjust to stress. Also called adrenaline. Epiphysis [ı˘-pı˘f9ı˘-sı˘s] (Gr., physis 5 growth). The end of a mammalian long bone; a threadlike outgrowth from the roof of the diencephalon of cartilaginous fishes. Epithalamus [e˘p9ı˘-tha˘l9Q-mu˘s] (Gr., thalamos 5 chamber, bedroom). The roof of the diencephalon lying above the thalamus; part of it is an olfactory center. Epithelial. See epithelium. Epithelium [e˘p9ı˘-the¯9le¯-Qm] (Gr., thele 5 delicate skin). The delicate cellular tissue that covers surfaces and lines cavities. Epithelial, adj. Epoöphoron [e˘p9o¯-o˘f9Q-rQn] (Gr., oon 5 egg 1 phero 5 to bear). A vestigial organ near the ovary of amniotes that is homologous to the male epididymis. Erectile tissue. A tissue containing cavernous vascular spaces that swell when they become filled with blood. Esophagus [ı˘-so˘f9Q-gQs] (Gr., oisophagos 5 gullet). The part of the digestive tract between the pharynx and stomach, or between the pharynx and intestine if a stomach is absent. Estivation (also aestivation) [e˘s9tQ-va¯9shQn] (L., aestivus 5 summer). A period of inactivity and dormancy during periods of hot, dry weather. Estradiol [e˘s9trQ-dı¯9ôl]. The primary hormone produced by the ovarian follicle; promotes the development of female secondary sex characteristics and the development of the uterine lining during an ovarian cycle. Its feedback to the hypothalamus promotes the luteinizing hormone surge needed for ovulation in many mammals. Estrus [e˘s9trQs] (Gr., oistros 5 gadfly, frenzy). A period in some female mammals of increased sexual excitement about the time of ovulation during which copulation may occur. Euryapsid [y9r9e¯-a˘p9sı˘d] (Gr., eurys 5 wide 1 apsis 5 arch). Pertaining to a reptilian skull in which a single temporal fenestra is present high on the skull and a wide arch of bone beneath it; a taxonomic group (Euryapsida) of reptilian species with such a skull type. Eustachian tube (Bartolomeo Eustachio, a 16th-century Italian anatomist). See auditory tube. Eutherians [y7-thîr9e¯-Qnz] (Gr., eu 5 true, good 1 therion 5 wild beast). The group of therian mammals with a relatively long gestation period; the placental mammals. Evagination [ı˘-va˘j9Q-na¯9shQn] (L., e 5 out of 1 vagina 5 sheath). An outgrowth from another structure, or the process that gives rise to the outgrowth. Evolution. Unidirectional (noncyclic) change. Evolutionary homology. Fundamentally similar parts in different organisms that have evolved from a common precursor in an ancestral species; they may or may not resemble each other superficially or functionally. Evolutionary process. A historical causal explanation for the apparent orderliness and systematic patterns of the biological world. Excretion [e˘k-skre¯9shQn] (L., ex 5 out 1 cretus 5 separated). The elimination of nitrogenous wastes. Exocrine glands [e˘k9so¯-krı˘n] (Gr., ex 5 out 1 krino 5 to separate). Glands the secretions of which are discharged through a duct onto some surface or into a cavity. Extension [ı˘k-ste˘n9shQn] (L., tendere 5 to stretch). A movement that carries a distal limb segment away from the next proximal segment, retracts a limb at the shoulder or hip, or moves the head or a part of the trunk toward the mid-dorsal line. External acoustic meatus [Q-k79stı˘k me¯-a¯9tQs]. The external ear canal of amniotes extending from the body surface to the tympanic membrane. External nostrils. See nares. Extrinsic [ı˘k-strı˘n9sı˘k] (L., extrinsicus 5 from without). Acting from outside the organ in question; applied to muscles that are not within or a part of the organ to which they attach. Extrinsic ocular muscles [o˘k9yQ-lQr]. The group of small muscles that extend from the wall of the orbit to the eyeball and control the movements of the eyeball. F Facial [fa¯9shQl] (L., facies 5 face). Pertaining to the face; applied to muscles, the seventh cranial nerve, and other structures. Facial nerve. The seventh cranial nerve; innervates facial and other muscles associated with the second visceral arch, some salivary glands, and taste receptors on the front of the tongue. Fallopian tube. (Gabriele Fallopio, 16th-century Italian anatomist). See uterine tube. Falx cerebri [fa˘lks se˘r9Q-bre¯] (L., falx 5 sickle 1 cerebrum 5 brain). The sickle-shaped fold of dura mater that projects between the cerebral hemispheres. Fascia [fa˘sh9e¯-Q] (L., 5 band, bandage). Sheets of connective tissue that lie beneath the skin (superficial fascia) or ensheathe groups of muscles (deep fascia or perimysium). Fasciculus [fa˘-sı˘k9yQ-lQs] (L., 5 small bundle). A small bundle of muscle or nerve fibers. Feathers [fe˘th9Qrz] (Old English, fether 5 feather). Skin derivatives, characteristic of birds, that consist primarily of keratinized epidermal cells, provide insulation, and form the flying surfaces of the wing and tail. Femur [fe˘9mQr] (L., 5 thigh). The thigh or the bone within the thigh. Fenestra [fQ-ne˘s9trQ] (L., 5 window). A relatively large opening, such as a temporal fenestra in the skull. Fenestra cochleae [ko˘k9le¯-e¯] (L., cochlea 5 snail shell). The opening in the wall of the otic capsule through which pressure waves are released from the cochlea to the tympanic cavity; also called the round window. Fenestra vestibuli [ve˘-stı˘b9yQ-le¯] (L., vestibulum 5 antechamber). The opening in the wall of the otic capsule through which vibrations of the auditory ossicles establish pressure waves in the cochlea; also called the oval window. Fibroblast [fı¯9bro¯-bla˘st] (L., fibra 5 fiber 1 Gr., blastos 5 bud). An irregularly shaped connective tissue cell that produces the extracellular matrix, including collagen fibers. Fibrocartilage. A variety of cartilage composed mainly of fibers similar to connective tissue fibers that sometimes is found in bone grooves and articulations. Fibrous tunic [t79nı˘k] (L., tunica 5 coat). The dense connective tissue forming the outer layer of the eyeball; divided into the transparent cornea and opaque sclera. Fibula [fı˘b9yQ-lQ] (L., 5 buckle). The slender bone on the lateral side of the shin of tetrapods. Filtration [fı˘l-tra¯9shQn]. The nonselective passage of molecules in the blood, other than plasma proteins, from the glomerulus into the renal tubule. Fish. A nonmonophyletic group name of convenience commonly used for vertebrates other than tetrapods. Among living vertebrates, this includes lungfishes, the coelacanth, cartilaginous fishes (e.g., sharks, batoids, and holocephalians), and actinopterygians (ray-finned fishes). For a single species the plural form is fish; for more than one species, the plural form is fishes. Fissure [fı˘sh9Qr] (L., fissura 5 cleft). A deep groove or cleft in certain organs, such as the brain and skull. Flexion [fle˘k9shQn] (L., flexus 5 bending). A movement that brings a distal limb segment toward the next proximal segment, advances a limb at the shoulder or hip, or bends the head or a part of the trunk toward the midventral line. Follicle-stimulating hormone. A hormone of the adenohypophysis that promotes the development of the ovarian follicles. Foramen, pl. foramina [fQ-ra¯9mQn, -ra˘m9Q-nQ] (L., 5 opening). A perforation of an organ, usually a small opening. Foramen magnum [ma˘g9nQm] (L., magnus 5 large). The large opening in the skull for passage of the spinal cord. Foramen of Monro (Alexander Monro Secundus, 1759–1808, Scottish anatomist). See interventricular foramen. Foramen of Panizza. An opening between the bases of the left and right systemic arches in crocodilians; shunts blood. Foramen ovale [o¯-va˘l9e¯]. A valved opening in the interatrial septum of fetal mammals that allows some blood to pass from the right to the left atrium, thereby bypassing the lungs; becomes the adult fossa ovalis. Force. The product of mass and acceleration. Forebrain. See prosencephalon. Fornix [fôr9nı˘ks] (L., 5 vault, arch). An arch-shaped neuronal tract deep in the cerebrum that carries impulses from the hippocampus to the hypothalamus. Fossa [fo˘s9Q] (L., 5 ditch). A groove or depression in an organ. Fossa ovalis [o¯-vä9lQs]. A depression in the interatrial septum that represents the fetal foramen ovale. Fossorial [fo˘-sôr9e¯-Ql] (L., fossorius 5 adapted for digging). Descriptive of an animal adapted for digging, such as a mole. Fovea [fo¯9ve¯-Q] (L., 5 a pit). A small depression, such as the fovea in the retina that contains a concentration of cones. Friction. The resistance to motion of an object resulting from its contact with the surface on which it is moving or the medium through which it is moving. Frontal [fru˘n9tl] (L., frons, gen. frontis 5 forehead). Pertaining to the forehead, such as the frontal bone. Fulcrum [f9l9krem] (L., 5 bedpost). The point of rotation or pivot in a lever system. Funiculus [fy9-nı˘k9yQ-lQs] (L., 5 slender cord). A bundle or column of white matter in the spinal cord. Furcula [fûr9kyQ-lQ] (L., 5 small fork). The united clavicles or wishbone of a bird. Fusiform [fy79zQ-fôrm] (L., fusus 5 spindle 1 forma 5 shape). A spindle-shaped or streamlined object. G Gait. The repetitive sequence for moving and placing the feet on the ground during locomotion of tetrapods. Gallbladder [gôl9bla˘d-Qr] (Old English, galla 5 bile). A small sac attached to the liver in which bile accumulates before its discharge into the intestine. Gamete [ga˘m9e¯t] (Gr., gamet- 5 spouse). The haploid germ cell: mature sperm or egg. Ganglion [ga˘ng9gle¯-o˘n] (Gr., 5 little tumor, swelling). A group of neuron cell bodies that lie peripheral to the central nervous system in craniates. Ganoid scale [ga˘n9oid] (Gr., ganos 5 sheen). A bony scale with a thick layer of surface ganoine, characteristic of the scales of early actinopterygians. Ganoine [ga˘n9o¯-Qn]. Enamel or enamel-like material deposited in layers on the surface of some bony scales. Gastralia [ga˘s-tra¯9le¯-Q] (Gr., gaster 5 stomach). Riblike structures in the ventral abdominal wall of some reptiles. Gastric [ga˘s-trı˘k] (Gr., gaster 5 stomach). Pertaining to or resembling the stomach. Gastrulation [ga˘s-tr7-la¯9shQn] (Gr., gastrula 5 little stomach). The process by which a single-layered blastula is converted into a twolayered gastrula with an archenteron; mesoderm formation often accompanies gastrulation. Gear ratio. An expression of the relationship between force and velocity; determined by dividing the length of the out-lever by the length of the in-lever. Genus name [je9nQs] (L., 5 race). The taxon that comprises very closely related species, and the first term in the binomial name for a species. Germ layers (L., germen 5 bud). The three epithelial tissue layers (ectoderm, mesoderm, endoderm) in an early embryo from which all organs will arise. Gestation period. The period in which the young are carried in the uterus before birth; from conception to birth. Gills. The respiratory organs of aquatic vertebrates, consisting of platelike or filamentous outgrowths from a surface across which water flows. Girdles. The skeletal elements in the body wall that support the pectoral and pelvic appendages. Gizzard [gı˘z9Qrd] (Old French, gezier 5 gizzard). A muscular compartment of the stomach that usually contains swallowed stones with which food is ground up. Gland [gla˘nd] (L., glans 5 acorn). A group of secretory cells. Glans clitoridis [gla˘nz klı˘-tôr9ı˘-dı˘s] (Gr., kleitoris 5 hill). The small mass of erectile tissue at the distal end of the clitoris of a female mammal. Glans penis [pe¯9nQs] (L., penis 5 tail, penis). The bulbous distal end of the penis of a mammal. Glenoid fossa [gle˘n9oid] (Gr., glene 5 socket 1 eidos 5 form). The socket in the pectoral girdle of tetrapods that receives the head of the humerus. Glia. See neuroglia. Glide. A controlled descent at a low angle to the horizontal. Glomerulus [glo¯-me˘r9yQ-lQs] (L., glomus 5 ball). A ball-like network of capillaries that is surrounded by the renal capsule at the proximal end of a renal tubule. Also refers to clusters of short neurons and neuron processes among which the olfactory neurons terminate. Glossal [glô9sQl] (Gr., glossa 5 tongue). Pertaining to the tongue; also used to describe certain muscles, such as the genioglossus. Glossopharyngeal nerve [glô9so¯-fQ-rı˘n-je¯-Ql] (Gr., pharynx 5 throat). The ninth cranial nerve, which innervates muscles of the third visceral arch and returns sensory fibers from the part of the pharynx near the base of a tongue. Glottis [glo˘t9ı˘s] (Gr., 5 opening of the windpipe). The opening near the base of the tongue that leads from the pharynx to the larynx. Glucagon [gl79kQ-go˘n] (Gr., glykys 5 sweet). A hormone produced by the pancreatic islet cells of the pancreas that promotes the breakdown of glycogen and the release of sugar from the liver; increases blood sugar level. Gnathostomes [na˘th9Q-sto¯mz] (Gr., gnathos 5 jaw 1 stoma 5 mouth). A collective term for all the jawed vertebrates (Gnathostomata). Gonads [go¯9na˘dz] (Gr., gone 5 seed). The gamete-producing reproductive organs, the ovaries and testes. Graafian follicle [grä9fe¯-Qn] (Rijnier de Graaf, Dutch anatomist, 1641–1673). See ovarian follicle. Grade. An artificial (i.e., nonmonophyletic) taxon. The term is usually used to indicate a group defined by convergent or primitive characters (e.g., “mammal-like reptiles” or “Pisces” in their traditional usage). Such groups are often defined by “niche adaptation” rather than by geneology. This term is more relevant to paleoecological studies than to evolutionary studies. See clade. Graviportal [grav9i-po¯r9ta˘l] (L., gravitas 5 weight 1 portare 5 to carry). Pertaining to appendicular and other adaptations that support great weight, as in elephants. Gray matter. Tissue in the central nervous system consisting of neuron cell bodies and unmyelinated nerve fibers. Gubernaculum [g79bQr-na˘k9yQ-lQm] (L., 5 small rudder). A cord of tissue that extends between the embryonic testis of therian mammals and the developing scrotum and guides the descent of the testis. Gustatory [gu˘s9tQ-tôr9e¯] (L., gusto, pp. gustatus 5 to taste). Pertaining to the sense of taste. Gymnophiona [jı˘m9no¯-fe¯9Qn-Q] (Gr., gymnos 5 naked 1 ophidion 5 snake). A taxon of tropical amphibians that includes the wormlike, burrowing caecilians. Gyrus [jı¯9rQs] (Gr., gyros 5 circle). One of the folds on the surface of the cerebrum. H Habenula [hQ-be˘n9y9-lQ] (L., 5 small strip). A small, epithalamic nucleus with olfactory connection. Hagfishes. See myxiniformes. Hair. A filamentous skin derivative of mammals that consists primarily of keratinized epidermal cells; helps provide insulation. See epidermis. Hair cells. The receptive cells of the ear and lateral line system, so called because they bear superficial cytoplasmic processes, most of which are modified microvilli. Halecomorphi [ha˘l9e¯-ko¯-môr9fı¯] (L., halec 5 herring 1 Gr. morphe 5 form). The division of the neopterygians that includes the living Amia calva, and numerous fossil taxa. Hallux [ha˘l9Qks] (Gr., 5 big toe). The first or most medial digit of the foot. Hard palate. A shelf of bone in mammals that separates the oral cavity from the nasal cavities; together with the soft palate it forms the secondary palate. Harderian gland (Johann Harder, a 17th-century Swiss anatomist). A tear gland present in certain mammals and located rostral to and beneath the eyeball; also called the gland of the nictitating membrane. Haversian system. See osteon. Head kidney. A group of pronephric renal tubules that persists in the adults of hagfishes and some teleosts. Heart. A hollow-chambered muscular organ that pumps blood through the body. Heliothermy [he¯9le¯-o¯-thûrm9e¯] (Gr., helios 5 sun 1 thermos 5 heat). The maintenance of a high body temperature by regulation of the body’s exposure to the sun; characteristic of many reptiles. Hemal arch [he¯9mQl] (Gr., haima 5 blood). A skeletal arch on the ventral surface of a caudal vertebra that forms a canal around the caudal artery and vein. Hemibranch [he˘m9e¯-bra˘ngk] (Gr., hemi 5 half 1 branchia 5 gills). A gill of fishes with gill filaments or lamellae present on only one surface of the interbranchial septum, often the first gill. Hemichordate [he˘m9e¯-kôr9da¯t] (Gr., chorde 5 string). A group (Hemichordata) of marine invertebrates showing some affinity to the chordates. Contains the acorn worms. Hemopoietic tissue [he¯9mo¯-poi-e˘t9ı˘k] (Gr., haima 5 blood 1 poietikos 5 producing). A tissue in which blood cells are formed. Hepatic [hı˘-pa˘t9ı˘k] (Gr., hepar, gen. hepatikos 5 liver). Pertaining to blood vessels, ducts, or other structures associated with the liver. Hepatic portal system. A system of veins that drain the abdominal digestive organs and lead to sinusoids within the liver. Hepatic vein. One of the veins that receives blood from the hepatic sinusoids and leads to the heart or caudal vena cava. Herbivore [hûr9bQ-vôr] (L., herba 5 herb 1 -vorous 5 devouring). Animal specialized to feed on plant material. Hermaphrodite [hQr-ma˘f9rQ-dı¯t] (Gr. mythology, the son of Hermes and Aphrodite who became united in one body with a nymph). An animal with both male and female reproductive organs. Heterocercal tail [he˘9tQ-ro¯-sûr9kQl] (Gr., heteros 5 other 1 kerkos 5 tail). A caudal fin of fishes in which the vertebral axis turns upward into an enlarged dorsal lobe. Heterochrony [he˘9tQr-o¯-kro¯-ne¯] (Gr., chronos 5 time). A genetic shift in the timing of the development of a body part or process relative to the ancestral condition. Heterodont [he˘9tQr-o¯-do˘nt9] (Gr., odous, odont- 5 tooth). Pertaining to dentition in which the teeth are differentiated and perform different functions, as in mammals. Hibernation. (L., hibernus 5 wintery). The period of torpor in which some vertebrates pass the winter. Hierarchy. An organization of things arranged in order of rank; a pattern of subsets nested within larger sets. Hindbrain. See rhombencephalon. Hippocampus [hı˘p9Q-ka˘m9pQs] (Gr., 5 seahorse). The medial pallium of mammals, which has shifted medially and protrudes into the lateral ventricle; part of the limbic system. Holoblastic cleavage [ho˘l9o¯-bla˘s9tı˘k] (Gr., holos 5 whole 1 glastos 5 bud). A pattern of cleavage in which the cleavage furrows pass through the entire egg. Holocephalians [ho˘l9o¯-sı˘f-a¯9le¯-Qnz] (Gr., holos 5 whole 1 kephale 5 head). The group of cartilaginous fishes that includes the chimaeras. Holonephros [ho˘l9o¯-ne˘f9rQs] (Gr., nephros 5 kidney). The hypothetical ancestral vertebrate kidney consisting of segmented renal tubules that develop along the full length of the nephric ridge; also called an archinephros. Homeostasis [ho¯9me¯-o¯-sta¯9sı˘s] (Gr., homoios 5 alike 1 stasis 5 standing). The condition in which a constant internal environment is maintained despite factors that tend to destabilize it. Homeothermic [ho¯9me¯-o¯-thûr9mı˘k] (Gr., homios 5 like 1 therme 5 heat). Pertains to vertebrates in which the body temperature remains relatively constant despite variations in ambient temperature; endothermic. See endothermy. Homocercal tail [ho¯9mo¯-sûr9kQl] (Gr., homos 5 same 1 kerkos 5 tail). A caudal fin that is superficially symmetrical but retains a slight uptilt in the skeleton of the vertebral axis; characteristic of teleosts. Homodont [ho¯9mo¯-do˘nt] (Gr., odous, odont- 5 tooth). Pertaining to dentition in which all the teeth are essentially alike, differing only in size. Homologous. To show homology. Homology [ho¯-mo˘l9Q-je¯] (Gr., homologia 5 agreement). The use of this term today is variable, and thus confusing, but it generally refers to some aspect of “sameness” (e.g., structures that match each other in origin, position, shape, or composition). Several types of homology have been defined. With regard to systematic evolutionary studies, the most commonly used and relevant type is “phylogenetic homology.” Phylogenetic homology is the fundamental similarity among organs in different organisms thought to be the result of their evolution from a precursor organ in a common ancestor. Empirically defined, phylogenetic homology at its most taxonomically inclusive level is the equivalent of synapomorphy. Also see serial homology, sexual homology. Homoplasy [ho¯9mo¯-pla¯9ze¯] (Gr., plastos 5 molded). Morphological resemblance among organs that are not phylogenetically homologous. In an evolutionary context, these are similarities that have originated independently with different lineages. A number of authors have attempted to distinguish among different kinds of homoplasy (e.g., parallelism and convergence) based on presumed recency of common ancestry, adaptation, and other hypothetical factors, but the authors believe that such a distinction cannot be unambiguously made based on empirical grounds. See analogy, homology. Hormones [hôr9mo¯nz] (Gr., hormono, pres.p. hormon 5 to rouse or set in motion). The secretions of the endocrine glands. Horn (Anglo-Saxon, 5 horn). A bony projection from the skull of many ruminants that is covered by layers of keratinized epidermis and is not shed; usually occurs in both sexes. Hox genes. Short sections of DNA that occur in clusters called homeoboxes; nearly identical sequences have been found in many invertebrate and vertebrate groups and regulate the expression of genes that determine the features characteristic of each body segment. Humerus [hy79mQr-Qs] (L., 5 upper arm). The bone of the upper arm. Hyaline cartilage [hı¯9Q-lı˘n] (Gr., hyalos 5 glass). Cartilage with a clear, translucent matrix. Hyobranchial apparatus. The group of visceral arches that support the tongue and larynx of tetrapods; includes the hyoid arch and one or more other arches. Hyoid [hı¯9oid] (Gr., hyoeides 5 shaped like the letter ypsilon 5 Y). Pertaining to structures associated with the second visceral arch, known as the hyoid arch. Hyoid apparatus. See hyobranchial apparatus. Hyomandibula [hı¯9o¯-ma˘n-dı˘b9y7-lQr] (L., mandibula 5 jaw). The dorsal element of the hyoid arch of fishes that extends from the otic capsule to the posterior end of the upper jaw. Hyostylic suspension [hı¯9o¯-stı¯9lı˘k] (Gr., stylos 5 pillar). A type of jaw suspension in fishes in which the upper jaw is attached to the skull by the hyomandibula. Hypaxial [hı¯-pa˘k9se¯-Ql] (Gr., hypo 5 under 1 axon 5 axle, axis). Pertaining to structures that lie ventral to the vertebral axis. Hyperosmotic [hı¯9pQr-o˘z-mo˘t9ik] (Gr., hyper 5 above 1 osmos 5 action of pushing). A condition in which the concentration of osmotically active solutes in the liquid in question is greater than in the comparison liquid. Hypobranchial [hı¯9po¯-bra˘ng9ke¯-Ql] (Gr., hypo 5 under 1 branchia 5 gills). Pertaining to muscles or other structures located ventral to the gills. Hypocercal tail [hı¯9po¯-sûr9kQl] (Gr., kerkos 5 tail). A caudal fin in which the vertebral axis turns into an enlarged ventral lobe. Hypoglossal nerve [hı¯9po¯-glo˘s9Ql] (Gr., glossa 5 tongue). The 12th cranial nerve of amniotes, which innervates muscles in the tongue; homologous to the hypobranchial nerve of anamniotes. Hypomere. See lateral plate. Hypo-osmotic [hı¯9po¯-o˘z-mo˘t9ik] (Gr., osmos 5 action of pushing). A condition in which the concentration of osmotically active solute in the liquid in question is less than that in the comparison liquid. Hypophysis [hı¯-po˘f9ı˘-sı˘s] (Gr., physis 5 growth). The pituitary gland. An endocrine organ, consisting of two lobes, which is located at the base of the skull. Hypothalamus [hı¯9po¯-tha˘l9Q-mQs] (Gr., thalamos 5 chamber, bedroom). The ventral part of the diencephalon that lies beneath the thalamus; an important center for visceral integration. Hyposodont [hı˘p9so¯-do˘nt] (Gr., hypsos 5 height 1 odont- 5 tooth). A high-crowned tooth. I Ileum [ı˘l9e¯-Qm] (L., 5 small intestine; from Gr., eileo 5 roll up, twist). The caudal portion of the small intestine of tetrapods. Iliac [ı˘l9e¯-a˘k]. Pertains to structures near or supplying the ilium, such as the iliac artery. Ilium [ı˘l9e¯-Qm] (L., 5 groin, flank). The dorsal bone of the tetrapod pelvic girdle that attaches onto the sacrum. Incisor [ı˘n-sı¯9zQr] (L., 5 the cutter; from incido 5 to cut into). One of the front teeth of mammals lying rostral to the canine; used for cutting or cropping food. Incongruence. Homoplasy, or characters that do not show congruence with other character data. See congruence, homoplasy. Incus [ı˘ng9kQs] (L., 5 anvil). The anvil-shaped middle auditory ossicle of mammals, homologous to the quadrate bone. Induction [ı˘n-du˘k9shQn] (L., inductus 5 led in). An embryonic process whereby a tissue causes an adjacent tissue to differentiate in a characteristic way. Inertia [ı˘-nûr9shQ] (L., iners 5 sluggish). The tendency of a body at rest to remain at rest, or of one in motion to remain in motion. Infundibulum [în9fu˘n-dı˘b9yQ-lQm] (L., 5 little funnel). A funnel-shaped structure, such as the expansion of the oviduct that contains its coelomic entrance; also a ventral evagination of the hypothalamus that forms the neurohypophysis. Ingest [ı˘n-je˘st9] (L., ingestus 5 taken in). To take material into the mouth. Ingroup. A relative term referring to all species within the particular taxon of reference (e.g., all taxa within the taxon being analyzed phylogenetically). See outgroup. Inguinal [ı˘ng9gwQ-nQl] (L., inguen, gen. inguinis 5 groin). A term used to describe structures in or near the groin. Inguinal canal. A passage through the body wall of mammals that leads from the abdominal cavity into the vaginal cavity of the scrotum; the ductus deferens as well as the blood vessels and nerves supplying the testis pass through it. In-lever. The lever arm through which a force is delivered into a lever system; it is the perpendicular distance from the line of action of the in-force to the axis of rotation of the lever system. Innate behavior [ı˘-na¯t9] (L., innatus 5 inborn). Those aspects of behavior that are inherited or instinctive and not learned. Inner ear. That portion of the ear that lies within the otic capsule of the skull and contains the receptive cells for equilibrium and hearing. Insectivore [ı˘n-se˘k9tı˘-vôr] (L., insectum 5 insect 1 -vorous 5 devouring). An insect-eating animal, specifically the group of eutherian mammals that includes the shrews and moles. Insertion [ı˘n-sûr9shQn] (L., insertio 5 a planting). That point of attachment of a muscle that moves the most when the muscle shortens; it is the most distal end of limb muscles. Insulin [ı˘n9su˘-lı˘n] (L., insula 5 island). The hormone produced by the pancreatic islets that decreases blood sugar by promoting the uptake of glucose by cells and its conversion into glycogen in liver and muscle cells. Integument [ı˘n-te˘g9y9-mQnt] (L., integumentum 5 covering). The skin. Integumentary skeleton. Hard structures such as plates of dermal bone, bony scales, and teeth that develop in or just beneath the skin. (See also dermal bone.) Intercentrum [ı˘n9tQr-se˘n9tru˘m] (L., inter 5 between 1 Gr., kentron 5 center). The ventral body that lies between the pleurocentra. Interclavicle [ı˘n9tQr-kla˘v9ı˘-kQl] (L., clavicula 5 small key). The ventromedian element of the pectoral girdle that lies between the clavicles. Internal capsule. A sheet of white fibers passing through the striatum, which carries most impulses to and from the cerebral cortex. Internal nostrils. See choanae. Interneurons [ı˘n9tQr-n9r9o˘nz] (L., inter 5 between 1 Gr., neuron 5 nerve, sinew). Neurons within the central nervous system that lie between the motor and sensory neurons. Their connections are responsible for most of the integrative activity of the central nervous system. Interstitial cells [ı˘n9tQr-stı˘sh9Ql] (L., interstitium 5 space between). Cells of the testis between the seminiferous tubules that produce testosterone. Interstitial fluid. A lymphlike fluid that lies in the minute spaces between the cells of the body. Interventricular foramen [ı˘n9tQr-ve˘n-trı˘k9u¯-lQr] (L., ventriculus 5 belly 1 foramen 5 hole). The opening between the lateral ventricles and third ventricle of the brain; also called the foramen of Monro. Intervertebral disk [ı˘n9tQr-vQr9te¯-brQl] (L., vertebratus 5 jointed). Disks of fibrocartilage that lie between the vertebral bodies (centra) of mammals and some other vertebrates. Intervertebral foramen. An opening between successive vertebral arches through which a spinal nerve passes. Intestine [ı˘n-te˘s9tı˘n] (L., intestinus 5 the intestine). The portion of the digestive tract between the stomach and cloaca or anus; site of most digestion and absorption. Intrinsic [ı˘n-trı˘n9sı˘k] (L., intrinsicus 5 on the inside). A structure that is an inherent part of an organ, such as the ciliary muscles of the eyeball. Invagination [ı˘n-va˘9jQ-na¯9shQn] (L., in 5 into 1 vagina 5 sheath). An ingrowth or the process that gives rise to an ingrowth. Involution [ı˘n9vo¯-l79shQn] (L., involutus 5 rolled up). A process that occurs during gastrulation of some vertebrates by which surface cells roll over the lip of the blastopore and move into the archenteron. Ipsilateral [ı˘p9sı˘-la˘t9Qr-Ql] (L., ipse 5 the same 1 latus 5 side). Pertaining to structures on the same side of the body. Iris [ı¯9rı˘s] (Gr., iris 5 rainbow). The part of the vascular tunic of the eyeball that lies in front of the lens, with the pupil in its center. Ischium [ı˘s9ke¯-Qm] (Gr., ischion 5 hip). The ventral and posterior element of the pelvic girdle. Islets of Langerhans (Paul Langerhans, 19th-century German physician). See pancreatic islets. Isocortex [ı¯9so¯-kôr9te˘ks] (Gr., isos 5 equal 1 L., cortex 5 bark). The expanded dorsal pallium of mammals; characterized by six neuronal layers. Sometimes called the neopallium. Isometric contraction [ı¯9so¯-me˘t9rı˘k] (Gr., metron 5 measure). A muscle contraction in which force is developed but the muscle does not shorten. Iso-osmotic [ı¯9so¯-o˘s-mo˘t9ı˘k] (Gr., osmos 5 action of pushing). A condition in which the concentration of osmotically active solutes in the liquid in question is the same as in the comparison liquid. Isotonic contraction [ı¯9so¯-to˘n9ı˘k] (Gr., tonos 5 tension). A muscle contraction in which the tension developed remains the same and the muscle shortens. J Jacobson’s organ (Ludwig L., Jacobson, 19th-century Danish surgeon and anatomist). See vomeronasal organ. Jejunum [jQ-j79nQm] (L., jejunus 5 empty). Approximately the first half of the mammalian postduodenal small intestine; usually found to be empty at autopsies. Jugular veins [ju˘g9yu¯-lQr] (L., jugulum 5 throat). Major veins in the neck of mammals that drain the head. K Keratin [ke˘r9Q-tı˘n] (Gr., keras 5 horn). A horny protein synthesized by the epidermal cells of many vertebrates. Kidney [kı˘d9ne¯]. The organ that removes waste products, especially nitrogenous wastes, from the blood and produces urine. Kinetic skull [kı˘-ne˘t9ı˘k] (Gr., kinein 5 to move). A skull in which the upper jaw and palate can move relative to other parts, found in many fishes, squamates, and birds. L Labia [la¯9be¯-Q] (L., 5 lips). Liplike structures. Labyrinth [la˘b9-Q-rı˘nth] (Gr., labyrinthos 5 labyrinth). An intricate system of connecting pathways, such as the membranous labyrinth of the inner ear. Lacrimal apparatus [la˘k9rı˘-mQl] (L., lacrima 5 tear). Pertaining to glands and associated structures that produce and transport the tears. Lactation [la˘k-ta¯9shQn] (L., lac 5 milk). The production and release of milk. Lacuna [lQ-k79nQ] (L., 5 pit). A small cavity, such as one in bone that contains an osteocyte. Lagena [lQ-je¯9nQ] (Gr., lagenos 5 flask). A posteroventral evagination of the sacculus; homologous to the cochlear duct. Lamella [lQ-me˘l9Q] (L., 5 small plate). A thin plate or layer of tissue, such as the lamellae in fish gills where gas exchange occurs. Laminar flow. The smooth, nonturbulent flow of water or air across the surface of the body. Lamprey. See Petromyzontiformes. Larva [lär9vQ] (L., 5 mask). A free-living developmental stage that is markedly different from the adult. Larynx [la˘r9ı˘ngks] (Gr., 5 larynx). A chamber at the entrance to the trachea; contains the vocal cords in many tetrapods other than birds. Lateral line nerves. A group of six special somatic sensory cranial nerves (not numbered) that are found in aquatic anamniotes. These nerves return impulses from the lateral line system. They are sometimes considered to be parts of the facial, glossopharyngeal, and vagus nerves, but they have an independent phylogenetic origin and an embryonic origin from neurogenic placodes. Lateral line system. A sensory system of fishes and larval amphibians that detects low-frequency water disturbances; parts are sometimes modified as electroreceptors. Lateral pallium [pa˘l9e¯-Qm] (L., pallium 5 cloak). The lateral-most part of the pallium; includes the amygdala and primary olfactory cortex (piriform lobe) of mammals. Sometimes called the paleopallium. Lateral plate. The most lateral or ventral portion of the mesoderm that contains the coelomic cavity; also called the hypomere. Lemniscus [lem-nis9ku˘s] (Gr., lemniskos 5 ribbon). A ribbonshaped neuronal tract ascending from sensory relay nuclei to parts of the thalamus. Lens [le˘nz] (L., 5 lentil). The part of the eyeball that focuses light on the retina. Lepidosaurs [le˘p9ı˘-do¯-sôrz] (Gr., lepsis 5 scale 1 sauros 5 lizard). A group of diapsid reptiles, including Sphenodon, lizards, snakes, and amphisbaenians. Lepidotrichia [le˘p9ı˘-do¯-trı˘k9e¯-Q] (Gr., trich- 5 hair). Bony fin rays of fishes composed of rows of small, tube-shaped segments, thought to be modified scales. Levers. Rodlike mechanical devices that exert a force by turning about a pivot or fulcrum. Leydig cells. (Franz von Leydig, German anatomist, 1821–1908). See interstitial cells. Lift. An upward force generated by a stream of water or air flowing across a fin or wing. The line of action of the lift force is perpendicular to the stream. Ligament [lı˘g9Q-mQnt] (L., ligamentum 5 band, bandage). Strong connective tissue band that extends between structures, usually skeletal elements; also describes certain mesenteries. Ligamentum arteriosum [lı˘g9Q-me˘n9tQm är9tîr-e¯-o¯9sQm]. The connective tissue band extending between the pulmonary artery and aorta; a remnant of the embryonic ductus arteriosus. Limbic system [lı˘m9bı˘k] (L., limbus 5 border). A brain region that encircles the diencephalon and leads to the hypothalamus; includes the amygdala, hippocampus, fornix, cingulate cortex, and part of the hypothalamus. Important in behaviors related to survival of the species, such as feeding and sexual activity. Lingual [lı˘ng9gwQl] (L., lingua 5 tongue). Pertaining to the tongue, such as lingual muscles. Linnean classification system. A convention of hierarchical ranking that allows organization of taxa as sets and subsets. Major categories are (in descending order of rank) kingdom, phylum, class, order, family, genus, and species. Species names are binomial (twoword) names, and all higher categories are one-word names. Additional rank categories between the seven major ranks are available through the use of prefixes, such as “sub-,” “super-,” “supra-,” and “infra-.” The rank of tribe is occasionally used as a suprageneric rank, and the word “section” has been used at several different intermediate levels. Lissamphibians (Gr., lissos 5 smooth 1 amphibianz). A group containing contemporary amphibians. See amphibians. Liver [lı˘v9Qr] (Anglo-Saxon, lifer 5 liver). A large gland that develops from the floor of the archenteron just behind the stomach; secretes bile and processes blood brought to it in the hepatic portal system. Loop of Henle (Friedrich G. J. Henle, German anatomist, 1809–1885). See medullary loop. Lophodont [lo˘f9Q-do˘nt] (Gr., lophos 5 crest 1 odont- 5 tooth). A cheek tooth the cusps of which have united to form ridges. Lumbar [lu˘m9bQr, -bär] (L., lumbus 5 loin). Descriptive of structures in the back between the thorax and pelvis, such as lumbar vertebrae. Lung [lu˘ng]. One of a pair of respiratory organs of terrestrial vertebrates that develops as an outgrowth from the floor of the pharynx. Lungs are present in some fishes but are sometimes single and develop caudal to the pharynx. Luteinizing hormone [l79te¯-Q-nı¯9zı˘ng] (L., luteus 5 yellow). A hormone produced by the adenohypophysis that promotes maturation of ovarian follicles, ovulation, and the growth of the corpus luteum. Lymph [lı˘mf] (L., lympha 5 clear water). A clear liquid derived from interstitial fluid that flows through the lymphatic vessels. Lymph heart. Muscular sections of lymphatic vessels of some amphibians and reptiles the contractions of which help propel the lymph. Lymph node. Nodules of lymphatic tissue along the course of the lymphatic vessels; the contained lymphocytes respond to invading antigens and initiate immune responses. M Macroevolution. (Gr., makros 5 large). Generally used to refer to large-scale evolutionary processes or patterns at the species level and above. See microevolution. Macrolecithal [ma˘k9ro¯-le˘s9Q-thQl] (Gr., lekithos 5 yolk). An egg with a large amount of yolk, found in many fishes, reptiles, and birds. Macrophage [ma˘k9ro¯-fa¯j] (Gr., phagein 5 to eat). Large cells that phagocytose, or ingest, foreign material. See phagocytosis, ingest. Macula [ma˘k9yu¯-lQ] (L., 5 spot). Spot or patch, specifically clusters of hair cells in the sacculus and utriculus of the inner ear. Malleus [ma˘l9e¯-u˘s] (L., 5 hammer). The outermost of the three mammalian auditory ossicles; homologous to the articular bone. Mammalia. See mammals. Mammal-like reptiles. A nonmonophyletic group name of convenience, commonly used in the past, that contains many groups of extinct amniotes. The name is misleading because these vertebrates are not reptiles at all, but a series of basal lineages more closely related to mammals than to crocodiles, lizards, snakes, dinosaurs, and birds. Mammals [ma˘m9Qlz] (L., mamma 5 breast). The vertebrate group (Mammalia) characterized by mammary glands and hair. Mammary glands. Cutaneous glands that secrete milk. Unique to mammals. Mandibular arch [ma˘n-dı˘b9yu¯-lQr] (L., mandibula 5 lower jaw). The first visceral arch of jawed vertebrates. Mandibular cartilage. The ventral part of the mandibular arch; forms the lower jaw of cartilaginous fishes. Sometimes called Meckel’s cartilage. Mandibular gland. A mammalian salivary gland that is located near the caudal end of the mandible, or lower jaw. Manus [ma¯9nQs] (L., 5 hand). The hand. Marsupials [mär-s79pe¯-Qlz] (L., marsupium 5 pouch). The pouched mammals. See also metatheria. Marsupium [mär-su¯9pe¯-u˘m]. The pouch of a marsupial in which the young are carried. Mass. The quantity of material an object contains, usually measured by weight. Matrix [ma¯9trı˘ks] (L., 5 womb, a female set aside for breeding). 1. The medium in which a substance is embedded, specifically the extracellular material in connective tissues. 2. A tabular illustration of empirical data arranged in columns and rows. Meatus [me¯-a¯9tQs] (L., 5 passage). A passage such as the external acoustic meatus, which leads to the tympanic membrane. Meckel’s cartilage. (Johann F. Meckel, 18th-century German anatomist). See mandibular cartilage. Medial pallium [pa˘l9e¯-Qm] (L., pallium 5 cloak). The medial-most part of the pallium; becomes the hippocampus of mammals. Sometimes called the archipallium. Mediastinum [me¯9de¯-Q-stı¯9nQm] (L., mediastinus 5 medial, from medius 5 middle). The area between the two pleural cavities of mammals that contains the pericardial cavity, thymus, and other structures. Medulla [mı˘-du¯l9Q] (L., 5 core, marrow). The central part of an organ, often as opposed to its periphery or cortex. Medulla oblongata. The posterior region of the brain that is continuous with the spinal cord. Medullary loop. Portion of the renal tubule of mammals and some birds and reptiles that loops into the medulla of the kidney, essential in establishing the interstitial salt gradient needed for the production of a concentrated urine. Sometimes called the loop of Henle. Melanophore [me˘l9Q-no¯-fôr9] (Gr., melas 5 black 1 -phore 5 bearing). A cell of neural crest origin in the skin that produces and carries the black pigment melanin. Melanophore-stimulating hormone. See Melanotropin. Melanotropin (L., trophe 5 nourishment). Hormone produced by the intermediate part of the adenohypophysis; causes the dispersal of melanin granules in some animals. Sometimes called melanophore-stimulating hormone. Melatonin [me˘l9Q-to¯9nı˘n] (Gr., tonos 5 stain). A hormone produced by the pineal gland in inverse proportion to the amount of light received; may be important in regulating sexual development and biorhythms. Membrane bone. See dermal bone. Membranous labyrinth [me˘m9brQ-nu˘s]. The sacs and ducts of the inner ear that are filled with endolymph and contain the receptive cells for balance and hearing. Meninges [mQ-nı˘n9je¯z] (Gr., meninx, pl., meninges 5 membrane). Connective tissue membranes that surround the central nervous system, namely, the dura mater, arachnoid, and pia mater. Meniscus [mQ-nı˘s9kQs] (Gr., meniskos 5 crescent). A crescent-shaped disk of fibrocartilage found in some joints, including the knee joint. Meroblastic cleavage [me˘r9o¯-bla˘s9tı˘k] (Gr., meros 5 part 1 blastos 5 bud). The partial cleavage of macrolecithal eggs. Mesectoderm [me˘z-e˘k9to¯-dûrm] (Gr., mesos 5 middle 1 ektos 5 outside). Mesoderm-like tissue in the head of vertebrates that arises from neural crest cells. Mesencephalon [me˘z9e˘n-se˘f9Q-lo˘n] (Gr., mesos 5 middle 1 enkephalos 5 brain). The midbrain, which dorsally forms the optic lobes or corpora quadrigemina. Mesenchyme [me˘z9Qn-kı˘m] (Gr., enchein 5 to pour in). An embryonic tissue that consists of star-shaped, wandering cells and gives rise to most adult tissues, except for epithelium. Mesentery [me˘z9Qn-te˘r9e¯] (Gr., enteron 5 intestine). Any fold of coelomic epithelium that suspends visceral organs or extends between them, carrying blood vessels and nerves; in a limited sense, the membrane that suspends the small intestine. Meso- [me˘z9o¯] (Gr., mesos 5 middle). A term that, when combined with the name of a visceral organ, denotes a mesentery suspending that organ, such as the mesocolon suspending the colon. Mesoderm [me˘z9o¯-dûrm] (Gr., derma 5 skin). The central germ layer of an early embryo; gives rise to most of the connective tissue, muscles, and blood. Mesolecithal [me˘z9o¯-le˘s-Q-thQl] (Gr., lekithos 5 yolk). An egg, such as that of an amphibian, with a moderate amount of yolk. Mesomere. See nephric ridge. Mesonephric duct. See archinephric duct. Mesonephros [me˘z9o¯-ne˘f9rQs] (Gr., nephros 5 kidney). An embryonic kidney that develops in the central part of the nephric ridge; contributes to the adult kidney of anamniotes and the epididymis of male amniotes. Mesozoic. The era of geologic time ranging from about 230 to 65 million years before the present. Metacarpal [me˘t9Q-kär9pQl] (Gr., meta 5 after 1 karpos 5 wrist). One of the skeletal elements in the palm of the hand. Metamerism [me˘-ta˘m9Qr-ı˘z-Qm] (Gr., meros 5 part). The condition in which the body is divided into similar segments. Metamorphosis [me˘t9Q-môr9fQ-sı˘s] (Gr., 5 transformation). The rapid change in form from a larva to an adult. Metanephros [me˘t9Q-ne˘f9ro¯s] (Gr., nephros 5 kidney). The adult kidney of amniotes, which develops from the caudal part of the nephric ridge. Metatarsal [me˘t9Q-tär9sQl] (Gr., tarsos 5 sole of the foot). One of the skeletal elements of the sole of the foot. Metatheria [me˘t9Q-thîr9e¯-Q] (Gr., therion 5 wild beast). The group of therian mammals that includes the marsupials. Metencephalon [me˘t9e˘n-se˘f9Q-lo˘n] (Gr., enkephalos 5 brain). The brain region that includes the cerebellum and, in birds and mammals, the pons. Microevolution. Generally used to refer to small-scale processes of change working at the level of interbreeding groups of organisms (populations). Such processes are thought by evolutionists to represent the mechanisms responsible for speciation. See macroevolution. Microglia [mı¯-kro˘g9le¯-Q] (Gr., micros 5 small 1 glia 5 glue). Small neuroglial cells of mesodermal origin, some of which are phagocytic. See phagocytosis. Microlecithal [mı¯9kro¯-le˘s9ı˘-thQl]. An egg with a small amount of yolk. Microvilli [mı¯9kro¯-vı˘l9ı¯] (L., villus 5 shaggy hair). Minute, nonmotile cytoplasmic processes on the surface of many epithelial cells; they greatly increase surface area. Midbrain. See mesencephalon. Middle ear. That portion of the ear of tetrapods that usually contains the tympanic cavity and one or more auditory ossicles that transmits vibrations from the body surface (usually from a tympanic membrane) to the inner ear. Middle ear cavity. See tympanic cavity. Modulus of elasticity. A measure of the elastic properties of a material; equals stress divided by strain. Structures with a low modulus of elasticity are more elastic than ones with a high modulus. Molar [mo¯9lQr] (L., mola 5 millstone). One of the teeth in the most posterior group of mammalian teeth, usually adapted for crushing or grinding. Moment. The product of a force times the perpendicular distance from the line of action of the force to an axis of rotation; also called a torque. Monophyletic [mo˘n9o¯-fı¯-le˘t9ı˘k] (Gr., monos 5 single 1 phyle 5 tribe). See monophyletic group. Monophyletic group. A taxon or group of organisms that includes all known descendants of a hypothetical ancestor and no other members. Putatively monophyletic groups are identified by hierarchies of special similarities (also referred to as characters, phylogenetic homologies, or synapomorphies), such as hair and mammary glands for mammals, feathers for birds, jaws for gnathostomes, and the presence of bone for osteichthyans. See characters, homology. Monophyletic taxa. See monophyletic group (monophyletic taxa 5 monophyletic groups). Monotremes [mo˘n9o¯-tre¯mz] (Gr., monos 5 single 1 trema 5 hole). A group including the extant prototherians; includes the platypus and spiny anteater. Morphogenesis [môr9fo¯-je˘n9Q-sı˘s] (Gr. morphe 5 form 1 genesis 5 production). The development of form. Morphological data. Descriptive data based on the anatomy of organisms. Morphology [môr-fo˘l9o¯-je¯] (Gr., morphe 5 form 1 logos 5 discourse). The study of structure. Motor unit. A motor neuron and the muscle fibers it supplies. Mucosa [mu¯-ko¯9sQ] (L., mucosus 5 mucous, slimy). The lining of the gut or other visceral organs, consisting of epithelium and associated connective tissue. Mucus [mu¯9kQs]. (L., 5 slime). A slimy material produced by some epithelial cells that is rich in the glycoprotein mucin. The adjective is mucous. Muscle [mu˘s9Ql] (L., musculus 5 muscle). A contractile tissue primarily responsible for the movement of an animal or its parts; discrete groups of muscle cells with a common origin and insertion. Myelencephalon [mı¯9Q-le˘n-se˘f9Q-lo˘n] (Gr., myelos 5 core, marrow 1 enkephalos 5 brain). The most caudal region of the brain; consists of the medulla oblongata and leads to the spinal cord. Myelin sheath [mı˘9Q-lı˘n]. A sheath around most axons, composed of lipid materials. Myocardium [mı¯9o¯-kär9de¯-Qm] (Gr., my- 5 muscle 1 kardia 5 heart). The muscular layer of the heart. Myoepithelial cells [mı˘9o¯-e˘p-Q-the¯9le¯-Ql]. Elongated epithelial cells with contractile properties, such as those associated with sweat glands. Myofilaments [mı¯9o¯-fı˘l9Q-mQnts]. Ultramicroscopic filaments of actin and myosin that form the contractile mechanism of muscle cells. Myoglobin [mı¯9o¯-glo¯9bı˘n] (L., globus 5 globe). A hemoglobin-like molecule in red muscle. Myomere [mı¯9o¯-mîr] (Gr., meros 5 part). A muscle segment, usually applied to adult segments. Myometrium [mı¯9o¯-me¯9tre¯-Qm] (Gr., metra 5 uterus). The muscular layer of the uterus. Myoseptum [mı¯9o¯-se˘p9tQm]. A connective tissue septum between myomeres. Myotome [mı¯9o¯-to¯m] (Gr., tome 5 cutting). A muscle segment, usually applied to embryonic segments. Myxiniformes [mı˘x9ı˘n-Q-fôr9me¯z] (Gr., myxa 5 slime 1 L., forma 5 form). A group of jawless fishes including the hagfishes. N Nares [ne˘r9e¯s] (L., naris, pl., nares 5 nostrils). The paired openings from the outside into the nasal cavities; external nostrils. Nasal [na¯9zQl] (L., nasus 5 nose). Pertaining to the nose, as in nasal bone. Neocerebellum [ne¯9o¯-se˘r-Q-be˘l9Qm] (Gr., neos 5 new 1 L., cerebellum 5 small brain). The portion of the mammalian cerebellum that has connections with the cerebrum; includes the cerebellar hemispheres and part of the vermis. Neocortex. See isocortex. Neognathous birds [ne¯9o¯-nâth-Qs] (Gr., gnathos 5 jaw). The group of birds (Neognathae) with a relatively advanced, nonreptilian type of palate; includes most orders of birds. See paleognathous birds. Neonatal [ne¯9o¯-na¯9tQl] (L., natus 5 born). Newborn. Neopallium. See isocortex. Neopterygians [ne¯9o˘p-tQ-rı˘j9e¯-Qnz] (Gr., neos 5 new 1 pteryg- 5 fin or wing). The group of actinopterygian fishes that includes gars, bowfins, and teleosts. Neornithes [ne¯-ôr9nQ-the¯z] (Gr., neos 5 new 1 ornis 5 bird). The group of birds that has lost many of the primitive features of the Archaeornithes (including the long tail); essentially modern birds. Neoteny [ne¯-o˘t9Qn-e¯] (Gr., teinein 5 to extend). Paedomorphosis that results from the slowing down of somatic development relative to reproductive development; it occurs in many salamanders. Nephric ridge [ne˘f9rı˘k] (Gr., nephros 5 kidney). The region of the mesoderm between the somite and lateral plate that gives rise to the kidneys and gonads; also called nephrogenic ridge and mesomere. Nephron [ne˘f9ro˘n]. A renal tubule, the structural and functional unit of the kidneys. Nerves [nûrvz] (L., nervus 5 nerve). A cordlike group of axons and associated connective tissue that lies outside the brain and spinal cord; nerves connect the central nervous system with other organs of the body. Neural arch [n9r9Ql]. See vertebral arch. Neural crest (Gr., neuron 5 nerve, sinew). A pair of ridges of ectodermal cells that develop along the top of the neural tube as the neural folds close; this derived character of craniates gives rise to many of their distinctive features, including the visceral skeleton, pigment cells, sensory and postganglionic neurons, the dentine-producing cells of teeth, and certain bony scales. Neural tube. The tube formed in the embryo by the joining of the pair of neural folds; the precursor of the brain and spinal cord. Neurilemma [n9r9Q-le˘m9Q] (Gr., lemma 5 husk). The thin sheath formed by cells of neural crest origin that surrounds an unmyelinated axon, or, after having myelinated an axon, lies on the surface of the myelin sheath. Neurocranium. See chondrocranium. Neuroectoderm (Gr., ektos 5 outside 1 derma 5 skin). That portion of the ectoderm that gives rise to the neural tube and neural crest. Neurogenic placode. See placode. Neuroglia [n9-ro˘g9le¯-Q] (Gr., glia 5 glue). Cells in the central nervous system that help support, protect, and maintain the neurons; they include astrocytes, oligodendrocytes, and microglia. Neurohemal organ [n9r9o¯-he¯9mQl] (Gr., haima 5 blood). An organ, such as the neurohypophysis, formed by the termination of a group of neurosecretory neurons and the blood vessels into which they discharge their products. Neurohypophysis [n9r9o¯-hı¯-po˘f9Q-sı˘s] (Gr., hypo 5 under 1 physis 5 growth). The posterior part of the hypophysis that develops from the infundibulum of the brain; its hormones promote the reabsorption of water and smooth muscle contraction. Neuromast [n9r9o¯-ma˘st] (Gr., mastos 5 knoll, breast). An aggregation of sensory hair cells and supporting cells in the lateral line system that is overlain by a gelatinous cupula. Neuron [n9r9o˘n]. A nerve cell, the structural and functional unit of the nervous system. Neurosecretory cells [n9r9o¯-sı˘-kre¯9-tQ-re¯]. Neurons that secrete hormones. Neurotransmitters [n9r9o¯-tra˘ns9mı˘t-Qrz]. Substances released by neurons at synapses and neuroeffector junctions that activate or inhibit the target cells. Nictitating membrane [nı˘k9tı˘-ta¯9tı˘ng] (L., nicto, pp. nictatus 5 to wink). A third eyelid of many amniotes that helps protect and cleanse the surface of the eyeball. Nidamental gland [nı¯9dQ-me˘n9tQl] (L., nidamentum 5 nesting material). An aggregation of glands in the oviduct that secrete coverings for the eggs. Nipple [nı˘p9Ql] (Old English, neb 5 small nose). A papilla that bears the openings of the ducts from the mammary glands. Nonmonophyletic. See nonmonophyletic group. Nonmonophyletic group. A group that is not monophyletic (see monophyletic group). Some authors attempt to divide nonmonophyletic groups into two types (paraphyletic and polyphyletic), but these subcategories often are defined inconsistently. This distinction is thought here to be relatively unimportant. Noradrenaline. See norepinephrine. Norepinephrine. [nôr-ep9Q-nef9rin] (L., nor 5 short for normal 1 Gr., epi- 5 upon 1 nephros 5 kidney.) The hormone produced by postganglionic sympathetic fibers and by chromaffin cells of the adrenal medulla. Notochord [no¯9to¯-kôrd] (L., notos 5 back 1 chorda 5 string, cord). A rod of vacuolated cells encased by a firm sheath that lies ventral to the neural tube in vertebrate embryos and some adults. Nucleus [n79kle¯-Qs] (L., 5 kernel). An organelle within a cell that contains the genetic material; a group of neuron cell bodies within the brain. O Obturator foramen [o˘b9tQ-ra¯9tQr] (L., obturo, pp. obturatus 5 to stop up). A foramen in the pubis of reptiles, or an opening between the pubis and ischium in mammals; the obturator muscles arise from the periphery of the obturator foramen and close it. Occipital nerves [o˘k-sı˘p9ı˘-tQl] (L., occiput 5 back of the head). Nerves that emerge from the occipital region of the skull, or just behind it, in fishes and some amphibians; they become the hypoglossal nerve of amniotes. Occlusion [o¯-kl79zhQn] (L., occludo, pp. occlusus 5 to shut up). The closing of a passage; the coming together of the surfaces of the teeth of upper and lower jaws. Octavolateralis system [o˘k-ta¯9vo¯-la˘t-Q-ra¯9lı˘s] (L., octavus 5 the eighth 1 latus 5 side, flank). The combined vestibuloauditory and lateral line systems of fishes and amphibians; fibers from the ear return in the eighth nerve, and those from the lateral line system return in the adjacent lateral line nerves. Fibers of the lateral line nerves are closely associated with the seventh, ninth, and tenth nerves. Oculomotor nerve [o˘k9y7-lo¯-mo¯9tQr] (L., oculus 5 eye 1 motorius 5 moving). The third cranial nerve, which innervates most of the extrinsic muscles of the eyeball and carries autonomic fibers into the eyeball. Odontoblast [o¯-do˘n9to¯-bla˘st] (Gr., odont- 5 tooth 1 blastos 5 bud). Cell of neural crest origin that produces the dentine of teeth or certain bony scales. Olecranon [o¯-le˘k9rQ-no˘n] (Gr., olene 5 elbow 1 kranion 5 head). A process on the proximal end of the ulna to which the triceps muscle attaches. Olfactory [o¯l-fa˘k9tQ-re¯] (L., olfacio, pp. olfactus 5 to smell). Pertaining to the nose. Olfactory bulb. A rostral enlargement of the brain in which the olfactory nerve terminates. Olfactory nerve. The first cranial nerve, consisting of neurons returning from the nose to the olfactory bulb. Oligodendrocytes [o˘l9ı˘-go¯-de˘n9drQ-sı¯ts] (Gr., oligos 5 few 1 dendron 5 tree 1 kytos 5 hollow vessel or cell). Neuroglial cells of ectodermal origin that myelinate axons in the central nervous system. Omentum [o¯-me˘n9tQm] (L., 5 fatty membrane). The peritoneal fold, sometimes containing a great deal of fat, which extends between the body wall and stomach (greater omentum), or between the stomach and liver and duodenum (lesser omentum). Omnivore [o˘m9nQ-vôr] (L., omnis 5 all 1 -vorous 5 devouring). An animal that eats a wide variety of food, both plant and animal. Ontogeny [o˘n-to˘j9Q-ne¯] (Gr., on 5 being 1 genesis 5 birth or descent). The development of an individual. Oogenesis [o¯-o¯-je˘n9Q-sı˘s] (Gr., oon 5 egg). The development and maturation of an egg. Operculum [o¯-pûr9kyQ-lQm] (L., 5 covering). The gill covering of fishes and some amphibian larvae consisting of bone and soft tissue (the bone by itself is referred to as the opercle); also an auditory ossicle in contemporary amphibians. Ophthalmic nerve [o˘f-tha˘l9mı˘k] (Gr., ophthalmos 5 eye). One of the main branches of the trigeminal nerve; passes through the orbit. Opisthocoelous vertebra [o¯-pı˘s9tho¯-se¯9lu˘s] (Gr., opisthen 5 behind 1 kolima 5 hollow). A vertebral body that is concave on the posterior or caudal surface and convex on the anterior surface. Opisthonephros [o¯-pı˘s9tho¯-ne˘f9rQs] (Gr., nephros 5 kidney). The adult kidney of most anamniotes; kidney tubules are concentrated caudally. Optic [o˘p9tı˘k] (Gr., optikos 5 pertaining to the eyes). Pertaining to the eyes. Optic chiasm [kı¯-a˘z9mQ] (Gr., chiasma 5 cross, from the Greek letter chi 5 X). The complete or partial decussation of the optic nerves on the floor of the diencephalon. Optic lobes. A pair of enlargements of the roof of the mesencephalon that are important integration centers for sight and other senses in anamniotes. Optic nerve. The second cranial nerve, which carries impulses from the retina. Oral cavity [ôr9Ql] (L., os, gen. oris 5 mouth). The mouth cavity, also called the buccal cavity. Orbit [ôr9bı˘t] (L., orbis 5 circle, eye). The cavity in the skull for the eyeball. Organ of Corti (Marquis Alfonso Corti, Italian anatomist, 1822–1888). The sound receptive organ in the mammalian cochlea. Origin [ôr9ı˘-jı˘n] (L., origio 5 beginning). The starting point of a structure; that end of a muscle that attaches to the more fixed part of the skeleton, which is the proximal end in limb muscles. Osmosis [o˘s-mo¯9sı˘s] (Gr., osmos 5 action of pushing). The movement of water through a semipermeable membrane, through which solute molecules do not pass, from an area of high water concentration to one with a lower water concentration. Osmotic pressure. The pressure that results from the movement of water by osmosis into a solution surrounded by a semipermeable membrane. Ossicle [o˘s9ı˘-kQl] (L., ossiculum 5 small bone). Any small bone, such as one of the auditory ossicles. Osteichthyes [o˘s9te¯-ı˘k9the¯z] (Gr., osteon 5 bone 1 ichthyes 5 fishes). The group of animals in which all or part of the endoskeleton ossifies; includes most vertebrates. This term is sometimes also used in a nonmonophyletic way excluding tetrapods. Osteoblast [o˘s9te¯-o¯-bla˘st] (Gr., blastos 5 bud). A cell that produces the bone matrix. Osteoclast [o˘s9te¯-o¯-kla˘st] (Gr., klastos 5 broken). A cell that removes bone and calcified cartilage during the process of bone remodeling and growth. Osteocyte [o˘s9te¯-o¯-sı¯t] (Gr., kytos 5 hollow vessel or cell). A mature osteoblast that is surrounded by the matrix it has produced. Osteoderm [o˘s9te¯-o¯-dûrm] (Gr., derma 5 skin). A small bone embedded in the skin of some vertebrates. Osteon [o˘s9te¯-Qn]. A cylindrical unit of bone consisting of concentric layers that have developed around a central cavity containing blood vessels; also called a haversian system. Ostium [o˘s9te¯-Qm] (L., 5 entrance, mouth). The entrance to an organ, such as the oviduct. Ostracoderms [o˘s-tra¯9ko¯-dûrmz] (Gr., ostrakon 5 shell 1 derma 5 skin). A nonmonophyletic group name of convenience applied to several orders of Paleozoic jawless fishes that are characterized by the extensive development of bone in the skin. Otic capsule [o¯9tı˘k] (Gr., otikos 5 pertaining to the ear). The portion of the chondrocranium that houses the inner ear. Otolith [o¯9to¯-lı˘th] (Gr., oto- 5 ear 1 lithos 5 stone). A calcareous structure found in the sacculus and utriculus of vertebrates; its movement with respect to gravity stimulates underlying hair cells and allows an animal to detect its position and movement. Outgroup. Any taxon outside the taxon of reference or study. The closest outgroup is the sister group. Out-lever. The lever arm through which a force is delivered out of a lever system to its point of application; it is the perpendicular distance from the line of action of the out-force to the axis of rotation of the lever system. Oval window. See fenestra vestibuli. Ovarian follicles [o¯-ve˘r9e¯-Qn] (L., ovarium 5 ovary). Groups of epithelial and connective tissue cells in the ovary that invest and nourish maturing eggs. The mature follicle is sometimes calld a graafian follicle. Ovary [o¯9vQ-re¯] (L., ovarium 5 ovary). One of a pair of female reproductive organs containing the ovarian follicles and eggs. Oviduct [o¯9vQ-du˘kt] (L., ovum 5 egg 1 ducere, pp. ductus 5 to lead). The tube that carries eggs from the coelomic cavity to the outside. Oviparous [o¯-vı˘p9Qr-Qs] (L., pario 5 to bear). A pattern of reproduction in which eggs are laid and then develop outside the body of the mother. Ovoviviparous [o¯9vo¯-vı¯-vı˘p9Qr-Qs] (L., viviparus 5 bringing forth alive). A pattern of reproduction in which the eggs are retained within the uterus and the embryos are born as miniature adults. The term is often limited to aplacental viviparity, for all or most of the needed nutrients and energy are contained within the egg. Ovulation [o˘v9y7-la¯9shQn]. The rupture of the ovarian follicle and the discharge of the eggs from the ovary into the ceolomic cavity, or sometimes directly into the surrounding infundibulum. Ovum [o¯9vQm] (L., 5 egg). The mature egg cell. Oxytocin [o˘k9sı˘-to¯9sı˘n] (Gr., okytokos 5 swift birth). A hormone produced by the neurohypophysis that promotes the contraction of uterine muscles at birth and the release of milk during lactation. P Paedomorphosis [pe¯9do¯-môr9fQ-sQs] (Gr., paid- from pais 5 child 1 morphe 5 shape). The retention of juvenile characters into the adult stage. Palate [pa˘l9ı˘t] (L., palatum 5 palate). The roof of the mouth. See hard palate, soft palate. Palatoquadrate cartilage [pa˘l9Q-to¯-kwo˘d9ra¯t] (L., quadratus 5 square). The dorsal part of the mandibular arch. Paleocerebellum [pa¯9le¯-o¯-se˘r9Q-be˘l9Qm] (Gr., palaios 5 ancient 1 cerebellum 5 small brain). The part of the cerebellum that receives proprioceptive impulses; the flocculonodular lobes in mammals. Paleognathous birds [pa¯9le¯-o¯-na˘th9Qs] (Gr., gnathos 5 jaw). Birds that retain a primitive reptile-like palate; the kiwi, emu, ostrich, and similar birds, most of which are flightless. Paleopallium. See lateral pallium. Paleozoic. An era of geologic time ranging from about 600 to 230 million years before present. Pallium [pa˘l9e¯-Qm] (L., pallium 5 cloak). The dorsal portion of the cerebral gray matter; most forms a surface cortex in mammals. See dorsal pallium, lateral pallium, medial pallium. Pampiniform plexus [pa˘m-pı˘n9ı˘-fôrm] (L., pampinus 5 tendril 1 forma 5 shape). A convoluted network of veins in mammals that surrounds the spermatic artery. Pancreas [pa˘n9kre¯-Qs] (Gr., pan 5 all 1 kreas 5 flesh). A large glandular outgrowth of the duodenum that secretes many digestive enzymes; also contains the pancreatic islets. Pancreatic islets. Small clusters of endocrine cells in the pancreas that produce hormones that regulate sugar metabolism; also called the islets of Langerhans. Papilla [pa˘-pı˘l9Q] (L., 5 nipple). A small, conical protuberance. Paracrines [para9a-krinz] (Gr., para 5 alongside of 1 krino 5 to separate). Signalling molecules released by cells that transmit information between cells that are close together, unlike endocrines, which transmit messages through the blood between more distant cells. Paradidymis [pe˘r9Q-dı˘d9Q-mQs] (Gr., para 5 beside 1 didymoi 5 testes). A small group of vestigial mesonephric tubules in mammals located beside the epididymis and testis. Paraganglia [pe˘r9Q-ga˘ng9gle¯-Q] (Gr., ganglion 5 little tumor). Small groups of chromaffin cells that lie beside the sympathetic ganglia. Parallel evolution. See convergent evolution. Parallelism. See homoplasy. Paraphyletic. See nonmonophyletic group. Parapophysis [pe˘r9Q-po˘f9Q-sı˘s] (Gr., apo 5 away from 1 physis 5 growth). A transverse process on a vertebral body to which the head of a rib attaches, or the facet on a vertebral body for such an attachment. Parasympathetic nervous system [pe˘r9Q-sı˘m-pQ-the˘t9ı˘k] (Gr., syn 5 with 1 pathos 5 feeling). The portion of the autonomic nervous system that, in mammals, leaves the central nervous system through certain cranial and sacral nerves; promotes metabolic processes that produce and store energy. Parathormone [pe˘r9Q-thôr9mo¯n] (Gr., horma, pres.p. hormon 5 to rouse or set in motion). The hormone of the parathyroid gland; helps regulate mineral metabolism. Parathyroid glands [pe˘r9Q-thı¯9roid] (Gr., thyreos 5 oblong-shaped shield 1 eidos 5 form). Endocrine glands of tetrapods located dorsal to or near the thyroid gland; their hormone regulates calcium and phosphate metabolism. Paraxial mesoderm. That portion of the mesoderm that lies just lateral to the neural tube, differentiates into somites in the trunk and caudal part of the head and into somitomeres more rostrally. Parietal [pQ-rı¯9Q-tQl] (L., paries 5 wall). Pertaining to the wall of some structure, such as the parietal bone or parietal peritoneum. Parietal eye. A median, photoreceptive eye of some fishes and reptiles; lies between the parietal bones. Parotid gland [pQ-ro˘t9ı˘d] (Gr., para 5 beside 1 otikos 5 pertaining to the ear). A mammalian salivary gland located caudal to the ear. Parsimony. In systematics, this term refers to the maximum amount of congruence among data. The most parsimonious hypothesis is the one that requires the fewest assumptions (e.g., steps of character transformation) about a data set. Parsimony is a necessary methodological tool to empirically select the preferred hypothesis of relationship from a potentially infinite number of possible phylogenetic hypotheses on the basis of character congruence. See congruence. Parthenogenesis [pär9thQ-no¯-je˘n9ı˘-sı˘s] (Gr., parthenos 5 virgin 1 genesis 5 descent or birth). Activation and development of an egg without fertilization. Patella [pQ-te˘l9Q] (L., 5 small plate). The kneecap. Pectoral [pe˘k9to¯r-Ql] (L., pectoralis, pertaining to the breast; from pectus 5 breastbone). Pertaining to the chest, as in pectoral appendage, pectoral muscles. Pectoral girdle. A series of bones or cartilages for the attachment of the pectoral fins or limbs. Pelvic [pe˘l9vı˘k] (L., pelvis 5 basin). Pertaining to basin-shaped structures, such as the human pelvic girdle, or to structures near the pelvic girdle. Pelvic girdle. A series of bones or cartilages for the attachment of the pelvic fins or limbs. †Pelycosaurs [pe˘l9ı˘-ko¯-sôrz] (Gr., pelyx, gen. pelykos 5 bowl, axe 1 sauros 5 lizard). An early group of synapsids of questionable monophyly, most of which have narrow, deep, axe-shaped skulls. Penis [pe¯9nı˘s] (L., 5 tail, penis). The male copulatory organ. Pericardial cavity [pe˘r9ı˘-kär9de¯-Ql] (Gr., peri 5 around 1 kardia 5 heart). The portion of the coelom that surrounds the heart. Perichondrium [pe˘r9ı˘-ko˘n9dre¯-Qm] (Gr., chondros 5 cartilage). The connective tissue covering of a cartilage. Perilymph [pe˘r9Q-lı˘mf] (L., lympha 5 a clear liquid). The lymphlike fluid that surrounds the membranous labyrinth of the inner ear. Periosteum [pe˘r9e¯-o˘s9te¯-Qm] (Gr., osteon 5 bone). The connective tissue covering of a bone. Peripheral nervous system. The portion of the nervous system lying peripheral to the brain and spinal cord; the cranial and spinal nerves. Perissodactyls [pQ-rı˘s9o¯-da˘k9tQlz] (Gr., perissos 5 odd 1 daktylos 5 finger or toe). The mammalian group that includes those ungulates with an odd number of digits (three or one): the rhinoceros, tapirs, horses. Peritoneal. Pertaining to the peritoneum. Peritoneal cavity [pe˘r9ı˘-tQ-ne¯9Ql] (Gr., peritonaion 5 to stretch over). The part of the mammalian coelom that surrounds the viscera. Peritoneum [pe˘r9ı˘-tQ-ne¯9Qm]. The connective tissue and epithelial layer that lines the peritoneal cavity, forms mesenteries, and covers the viscera. Permanent teeth. The teeth of mammals that replace the milk, or deciduous, teeth. Pes [pe˘z] (L., 5 foot). Foot. Petromyzontiformes [pe˘9tro¯-mı¯9zo˘n-tı˘-fôr9me¯z] (Gr., petros 5 stone 1 myzo 5 to suck in 1 L., forma 5 form). The lampreys. Phagocytosis [fa˘g9o¯-sı¯-to¯9sı˘s] (Gr., phagein 5 to eat 1 kytos 5 hollow vessel or cell). The ingestion and breaking down of foreign particles by a cell. Phalanges [fQ-la˘n9je¯z] (Gr., phalanx, pl. phalanges 5 battle line of soldiers). Bones of the digits that extend beyond the palm or sole. Pharynx [fe˘r9ı˘ngks] (Gr., 5 throat). The portion of the digestive tract from which the pharyngeal pouches develop in an embryo; lies between the oral cavity and esophagus; the crossing place of digestive and respiratory tracts. Pheromones [fe˘r9Q-mo¯nz] (Gr., pherein 5 to bear 1 horma, pres.p. hormon 5 to rouse or set in motion). Chemical secretions that act as signals for another individual of the same species. Phylogenetic homology. See homology. Phylogenetic hypothesis. See phylogeny. Phylogeny [fı¯-lo˘j9Q-ne¯] (Gr., phylon 5 race 1 genesis 5 birth or descent). A hypothesis of evolutionary relationships among the members of a monophyletic group. A phylogeny may be fully resolved (normally containing only dichotomous branching) or remain partly unresolved (containing polychotomous branch points or nodes). Also often referred to as an evolutionary tree. Physoclistous [fı¯9so¯-klı˘9stQs] (Gr., physa 5 bladder 1 kleien 5 to close). Pertaining to fishes in which the swim bladder is not connected to the digestive tract. Physostomous [fı¯9so¯-sto¯9mQs] (Gr., stoma 5 mouth). Pertaining to the fishes in which the swim bladder remains connected to the digestive tract by a pneumatic duct. Pia mater [pı¯9Q ma¯9tQr] (L., 5 tender mother). The delicate vascular membrane that invests the brain and spinal cord; the innermost of the three mammalian meninges. Pineal eye [pı˘n9e¯-Ql] (L., pineus 5 relating to pine; from pinus 5 pine tree). A dorsal outgrowth of the diencephalon that forms a lightsensitive eye in some fishes and amphibians and becomes the pineal gland in mammals. Pineal gland. An endocrine gland that produces melatonin, especially in the dark. Melatonin is believed to adjust many endogenous physiological processes to diurnal and seasonal cycles. Pisces [pı¯9se¯z] (Gr., 5 fishes). A nonmonophyletic group name of convenience for all vertebrates excluding tetrapods (i.e., fishes). See monophyletic group. Pitch. The vertical rotation of a swimming or flying vertebrate about its longitudinal axis. Pituitary gland [pı˘-t79ı˘-te˘r9e¯]. See hypophysis. Placenta [plQ-se˘n9tQ] (L., 5 flat cake). The apposition or union of parts of the uterine lining and fetal extraembryonic membranes through which exchanges between mother and embryo occur. Placental mammals. See eutherians. Placode [pla˘k9o¯d] (Gr., placodes from plax 5 plate 1 eidos 5 like). A thickened disk of ectoderm that gives rise to certain sense organs and nerves. Neurogenic placodes give rise to some receptor cells and sensory neurons in the head. †Placoderms [pla˘k9o¯-dûrmz] (Gr., derma 5 skin). A group of Paleozoic jawed fishes characterized by the extensive development of bone in the head and thorax. Placoid scale. See dermal denticle. Plantigrade [pla˘n9tı˘-gra¯d] (L., planta 5 sole of the foot 1 gradus 5 step). Walking with the sole of the foot on the ground. Plastron [pla˘s9trQn] (French, 5 breastplate). The ventral shell of a turtle. Plesiomorphic character [ple¯9se¯-o¯-môr9fı˘k] (Gr., plesios 5 near 1 morphe 5 shape). A primitive or ancestral character. Meaningful only in a relative sense (e.g., the presence of mammary glands is primitive when considering only apes, but it is derived and apomorphic when considering all of Mammalia). Pleura [pl9r9Q] (Gr., 5 side, rib). The coelomic epithelium in the pleural cavities. Pleural cavities. The coelomic spaces that enclose the lungs of mammals. Pleurapophysis [pl9r9Q-po˘f9ı˘-sı˘s] (Gr., apo 5 away 1 physis 5 growth). A vertebral transverse process that incorporates a rib. Pleurocentrum pl. Pleurocentral [pl9r9o¯-se˘n9trQm] (L., centrum 5 center). A dorsolateral element of the vertebral body of vertebrates that becomes the main vertebral body of amniotes. Pleurodont tooth [pl9r9o¯-do˘nt] (Gr., odont- 5 tooth). A tooth that is loosely attached to the outside edge of the jaw. Pleuroperitoneal cavity [pl9r9o¯-pe˘r9ı˘-tQn-e¯9Ql]. The peritoneal cavity and potential pleural cavities of anamniotes and some reptiles; contains the viscera and lungs (if present). Plexus [ple˘k9sQs] (L., 5 a braid). A network of nerves or blood vessels. Pneumatic duct [n7-ma˘t9ı˘k] (Gr., pneuma 5 air). The duct that connects the swim bladder with the pharynx in physostomous fishes. Poikilothermic [poi9kı˘-lo¯-thûr9mı˘k] (Gr., poikilos 5 varied 1 thermos 5 heat). Pertains to vertebrates in which the body temperature varies with the ambient temperature; ectothermic. Pollex [po˘l9e˘ks] (Gr., 5 thumb). The thumb. Polyphyletic. See nonmonophyletic group. Polyphyodont [po˘l9e¯-fı¯9o¯-do˘nt] (Gr., polyphyes 5 manifold 1 odont- 5 tooth). Pertaining to many successive sets of teeth. Pons [po˘nz] (L., 5 bridge). The ventral part of the metencephalon of birds and mammals; has a conspicuous, superficial band of transverse fibers. Portal veins [pôr9tQl] (L., porta 5 gate). Veins that drain one capillary bed and lead to another one in a different organ, such as the hepatic portal and hypophyseal portal systems. Posterior chamber. The cavity within the eyeball located between the iris and the ciliary body. Postganglionic fiber [po¯st9ga˘ng-gle¯-o˘n9ı˘k] (Gr., ganglion 5 small tumor). A neuron of the autonomic nervous system with its cell body in a peripheral ganglion and its axon extending to the effector organ. Posttrematic [po¯st9tre¯-ma˘t9ı˘k] (Gr., trema 5 hole). Pertaining to blood vessels or nerves that lie caudal to a branchial pouch. Power. The rate of doing work. Preadaptation. The evolution of a feature that enables an animal to exploit a new environment, such as the evolution of lungs in certain fishes. Preganglionic fibers [pre¯9ga˘ng-gle¯-o˘n9ı˘k] (Gr., ganglion 5 small tumor). A neuron of the autonomic nervous system with its cell body in the brain or spinal cord and its axon extending to a peripheral ganglion. Premolars [pre¯-mo¯9lQrz] (L., molaris 5 millstone). Cheek teeth that lie rostral to the molars and may be specialized for cutting or grinding. Pressure. Force per unit area, such as grams per square centimeter. Pretrematic [pre¯9tre¯-ma˘t9ı˘k] (Gr., trema 5 hole). Pertaining to blood vessels or nerves that lie rostral to a branchial pouch. Primates [prı¯9ma¯ts] (L., primus 5 one of the first). The eutherian group that includes lemurs, monkeys, apes, and humans. Primitive character. A character state that is the ancestral condition for a group; also called a plesiomorphic character. For example, the presence of bone is primitive for birds, but, conversely, the presence of feathers is derived for birds. See character, derived character. Primitive streak. A longitudinal thickening of cells on the blastoderm of large-yolked eggs, through which prospective chordamesoderm and mesoderm cells move inward; homologous to the blastopore. Primordium [prı¯-môr9de¯-Qm] (L., 5 beginning). The first indication of the formation of a structure in an embryo. Processus vaginalis [pro¯-se˘s9Qs va˘9jı˘9na˘l9ı˘s] (L., 5 process 1 vagina 5 sheath). A sac that contains the mammalian testis and its sperm duct and blood vessels, as well as the coelomic vaginal cavity; located in the scrotum, also called vaginal sac. Procoelous [pro¯-se¯9lQs] (Gr., koilios 5 hollow). A vertebral body with a concavity on its cranial surface. Proctodaeum [pro˘k9to¯-de¯9Qm] (Gr., proktos 5 anus 1 hodaion 5 way). An ectodermal invagination near the caudal end of the embryo that contributes to the cloaca. Progenesis [pro¯-je˘n9ı˘-sı˘s] (Gr., pro 5 before 1 genesis 5 origin). Paedomorphosis that, in theory, results from the acceleration of reproductive maturity relative to somatic development. Progesterone [pro¯-je˘s9tQ-ro¯n] (L., gesto, pp. gestatus 5 to bear). A hormone produced by the corpus luteum and later by the placenta; prepares the uterus for the reception of a fertilized egg and maintains the uterine lining during pregnancy. Prolactin [pro¯-la˘k9tı˘n] (L., lac, lact- 5 relating to milk). A hormone produced by the adenohypophysis that promotes maternal behavior and milk production. Pronephros [pro¯-ne˘f9rQs] (Gr., pro 5 before 1 nephros 5 kidney). The first formed kidney of a vertebrate embryo, which lies dorsal to the pericardial cavity and forms the archinephric duct before it atrophies. Proprioceptor [pro¯9pre¯-o¯-se˘p9tQr] (L., proprius 5 one’s own 1 capio, pp. ceptus 5 to take). A receptor in muscles, tendons, and joints that monitors the activity of muscles. Prosencephalon [pro˘s9e˘n-se˘f9Q-lo˘n] (Gr., pro 5 before 1 enkephalos 5 brain). The embryonic forebrain, which gives rise to the telencephalon and diencephalon. Prostate [pro˘s9ta¯t] (Gr., prostates 5 one who stands before). An accessary sex gland of male mammals that surrounds the urethra just before the urinary bladder. Protandry [pro¯-ta˘n9dre¯] (Gr., protos 5 first 1 andr- 5 man). Sequential hermaphroditism in which the gonad functions first as a testis before it acts as an ovary. Protochordates [pro¯9to¯-kôr9da¯ts] (L., chorda 5 string, cord). A nonmonophyletic group of convenience for the noncraniate chordates: the tunicates and cephalochodates. Protogyny [pro¯-to˘j9Q-ne¯] (Gr., gyne 5 woman). Sequential hermaphroditism in which the gonad functions first as an ovary before it acts as a testis. See hermaphrodite. Protostomes [pro¯9to¯-sto¯mz] (Gr., stoma 5 mouth). Thegroup of coelomate animals in which the blastopore forms or contributes to the mouth; includes mollusks, annelids, and arthropods. Prototherians [pro¯9to¯-thîr9e¯-Qnz] (Gr., therion 5 wild beast). A primitive or basal branch of Mammalia (mammals); includes the contemporary, egg-laying monotremes. Protraction [pro¯-tra˘k9shQn] (L., pro 5 before 1 traho, pp. tractus 5 to pull). Muscle action that moves the entire appendage of a quadruped forward. Proventriculus [pro¯9ve˘n-trı˘k9u¯-lu˘s] (L., ventriculus 5 smallbelly). The anterior, glandular portion of the stomach of birds. Pseudobranch [su¯9do¯-bra˘nk] (Gr., pseudes 5 false 1 branchia 5 gills). A small first gill of some fishes, without a respiratory function. †Pterosaur [te˘r9Q-sôr] (Gr., pteryg- 5 fin or wing 1 sauros 5 lizard). An extinct order of flying reptiles. Pterygiophores [tQ-rı˘j9e¯-o¯-fôrz] (Gr., phoros 5 bearing). The supporting cartilages or bones of the fin rays. Also called radials or basals. Pubis [pyu¯9bı˘s] (L., pubes 5 genital hair). The cranioventral bone of the pelvis of tetrapods. Pulmonary [p9l9mQ-ne˘r9-e¯] (L., pulmo 5 lung). Pertaining to the lungs, as the pulmonary artery. Pupil [pyu¯9pQl] (L., pupilla 5 pupil). The central opening through the iris of the eye. Pygostyle [pı¯9go¯-stı¯l] (Gr., pyge 5 rump 1 stylos 5 pillar). The fused, caudal vertebrae of a bird, which support the tail feathers. Pylorus [pı¯-lôr9Qs] (Gr., pyloros 5 gatekeeper). The caudal end of the stomach, which contains a sphincter muscle. Pyramidal system [pı˘-ra˘m9ı˘-dQl] (Gr., pyramis 5 pyramid). The direct motor pathway in mammals from the cerebrum to the motor nuclei and columns. R Radius [ra¯9de¯-Qs] (L., 5 ray). A bone of the forearm of tetrapods that rotates around the ulna; located on the thumb side when the hand is supine. Ramus [ra¯9mQs] (L., 5 branch). A branch such as those of a spinal nerve. Rathke’s pouch (Martin H. Rathke, German anatomist, 1793–1860). A dorsal evagination of the stomadaeum that forms the adenophypophysis. Ray-finned fishes. See actinopterygians. Receptor [re¯-se˘p-tQr] (L., 5 receiver). A specialized cell or neuron ending that responds to a specific stimulus and initiates a nerve impulse. Rectum [re˘k9tQm] (L., rectus 5 straight). The terminal segment of the intestine that leads to the anus. Reflex [re¯9fle˘ks] (L., reflecto, pp. reflexus 5 to bend backward). An innate reaction in response to a peripheral stimulus. Releasing hormones. Hormones produced by the hypothalamus that travel in the hypophyseal portal system and promote the release of specific adenohypophyseal hormones. In several cases, inhibiting hormones are also known. Renal [re¯9nQl] (L., ren 5 kidney). Pertaining to the kidneys. Renal capsule. The dilated end of a kidney tubule that surrounds a knot of capillaries. Renal portal system. A system of veins that drains the tail and hind legs of most nonmammalian vertebrates and leads to the peritubular capillaries of the kidneys. Renal tubule. A kidney tubule or nephron. Reptiles [re˘p9tı¯lz] (L., reptilis 5 creeping). A nonmonophyletic group name of convenience. This term has most often referred to a group of amniotes including turtles, lizards, snakes, and crocodiles (among living vertebrates). Phylogenetically based classifications recognize that crocodilians and dinosaurs are more closely related to birds than to lizards and snakes, and that the precise relationships of turtles are yet unclear. Resultant of force. A vector that expresses the interaction between two or more vectors. Rete cords [re¯9te¯] (L., rete 5 net). Minute cords in the embryo that interconnect the primary sex cords and the cranial mesonephric tubules; they contribute to the sperm passages in males and regress in females. Rete mirabile [mı˘-rä9bı˘-lQ] (L., 5 wonderful net). A network of small arteries or capillaries, such as those associated with the gas gland of the swim bladder. Reticular formation [rı˘-tı˘k9yQ-lQr] (L., reticulum 5 small net). A network of short interneurons in the brainstem that forms a primitive integrating system. In mammals, it also projects to the cerebrum and helps maintain the level of arousal. Reticulate speciation. A process theory involving the origin of a new species through hybridization of two different species. Retina [re˘t9-n-Q]. The innermost layer of the eyeball; con-tains pigment cells, photoreceptive cells, and neurons. Retraction [rı˘-tra˘k9shQn] (L., retractio 5 a drawing back). Muscle action that moves the entire appendage of a quadruped backward. Retroperitoneal [re˘9tro¯-pe˘r-ı˘-tQn-e¯9Ql] (L., retro 5 backward 1 Gr., peritonaion 5 to stretch over). Pertaining to structures, such as the kidneys, that lie dorsal to the peritoneal cavity. Rhinal [rı¯9nQl] (Gr., rhin- 5 nose). Pertaining to the nose. Rhipidistians [rı˘9pı˘-dı˘s9te¯-Qnz] (Gr., rhipis 5 fan). Often used as nonmonophyletic group name of convenience for certain sarcopterygian fishes, including the presumed ancestors of tetrapods. We use it here in a monophyletic sense. See sarcopterygians. Rhombencephalon [ro˘m9be˘n-se˘f9Q-lo˘n] (Gr., rhombos 5 lozenge-shaped 1 enkephalos 5 brain). The hindbrain, the most posterior of the three primary divisions of the developing brain; subdivides into the metencephalon and myelencephalon. Roll. Rotation of a swimming or flying vertebrate around its longitudinal axis. Round window. See fenestra cochleae. Rudiment [r79dı˘-mQnt] (L., rudimentum 5 first attempt). An early stage in the development of an organ; a primordium. Rumen [r99mQn] (L., rumen 5 gullet). The first and largest chamber of the ruminant stomach. Ruminants [r99mı˘-nQnts] (L., rumino 5 to chew the cud). Those artiodactyls with chambered stomachs, including deer, sheep, and cattle. S Sacculus [sa˘k9yu¯-lQs] (L., 5 small sac). The most ventral chamber of the membranous labyrinth. Sacral. Pertaining to the sacrum. Sacrum [sa¯9krQl, sa¯9krQm] (L., sacrum 5 sacred). The vertebrae, or the union of two or more vertebrae and their ribs, by which the pelvis articulates with the vertebral column. Salientia. See anurans. Salivary gland [sa˘l9ı˘-ve˘r9e¯] (L., saliva 5 saliva). A gland that produces the saliva; the major ones in mammals are the parotid, mandibular, and sublingual glands. Salt gland. A gland or secretory cells that secrete excess salt; found near the nose and eye in certain marine reptiles and birds and on the gill of certain marine fishes. Saltatorial [sa˘l9tQ-tôr9e-Ql] (L., saltatio 5 to dance). Adapted for leaping. Sarcopterygians [sär9ko˘p-tQ-rı˘j9e¯-Qnz] (Gr., sarkodes 5 fleshy 1 pteryg- 5 fin or wing). The group of Osteichthyes with fleshy (“lobed”), paired fins, including coelacanths, rhipidistians, lungfishes, and tetrapods. Traditionally, this group included only fishes (i.e., excluded tetrapods), but sarcopterygians are more closely related to tetrapods than they are to ray-finned fishes or sharks. Sauropsida. A group (as used here) containing reptiles and birds. Scala tympani [ska¯9lQ tı˘m9pa˘-ne¯] (L., scala 5 ladder 1 tympanum 5 drum). The perilymphatic duct through which pressure waves pass from the cochlea to the tympanic cavity. Scala vestibuli [ve˘s-tı˘b9yu¯-le¯] (L., vestibulum 5 antechamber). The perilymphatic duct through which pressure waves enter the cochlea from the auditory ossicle. Scales. Hard, platelike structures on the surface of the skin in many vertebrates. Scaling. Analyzing the relationship between the size of a structure, or level of activity of a process, and body size. Scapula [ska˘p9yu¯-lQ] (L., 5 shoulder blade). The dorsal element of the pectoral girdle that ossifies from cartilage. Schizocoele [skı˘z9Q-se¯l] (Gr., schizo 5 to cleave 1 koilos 5 hollow). A coelom formed by cavitation of the mesoderm rather than by enterocoelic pouches, characteristic of protostomes. Schwann cells (Theodor Schwann, German histologist, 1810–1882). See neurilema. Sclera [sklîr9Q] (Gr., skleros 5 hard). The opaque, “white” portion of the fibrous tunic of the eyeball. Sclerotic bones [sklQ-ro˘t9ı˘k] (Gr., oto- 5 ear). A ring of bones that develops in the sclera of some vertebrates and strengthens the eyeball wall. Sclerotome [sklîr9Q-to¯m] (Gr., tomos 5 a cutting). The medial portion of a somite that forms the vertebrae and the caudal part of the chondrocranium. Scrotum [skro¯9tQm] (L., 5 pouch). The sac that encases the mammalian testes; it includes all of the layers of the body wall. Sebaceous glands [sı˘-ba¯9she¯-u˘s] (L., sebum 5 tallow). Mammalian cutaneous glands that secrete oily and waxy materials. Secondary palate. A palate that separates the food and air passages; in mammals, it consists of a bony hard palate that separates the oral and nasal cavities and a fleshy soft palate that separates the oral pharynx from the nasal pharynx. Secretin [sı˘-kre¯t9ı˘n] (L., secerno, pp. secretus 5 to secrete). A hormone produced by the duodenal mucosa that promotes the secretion of the aqueous portion of the pancreatic juice. Segmentation [se˘g9mQn-ta¯9shQn]. Refers to the division of the body into a longitudinal series of segments. Selachian [sı˘-la¯9ke¯-Qn] (Gr., selachios 5 resembling a shark). A taxonomic subdivision of sharks. Selenodont [si˘-le¯9no¯-do˘nt] (Gr., selene 5 crescent 1 odont- 5 tooth). Mammalian cheek teeth with crescent-shaped cusps. Semicircular duct [se˘m9ı˘-sûr9kyQ-lQr]. One of the ducts, shaped like a half-circle, of the membranous labyrinth; semicircular ducts are located within a set of semicircular canals in the otic capsule of the skull. Seminal fluid [se˘m9Q-nQl] (L., semen 5 seed). The fluid secreted by male reproductive ducts and accessory sex glands that carries the sperm. Seminal vesicle. See vesicular gland. Seminiferous tubules [se˘m9Q-nı˘f9Qr-Qs]. The tubules within the testis that produce the sperm. Sense organ. An aggregation of receptive cells and associated cells that support them and may amplify a stimulus. Septum. A partition between two structures. Also, a group of small nuclei within the rostral ventromedial wall of the subpallium. Serial homology. A type of homology referring to similarity between different parts of a series of structures within a single organism (e.g., different leaves on a branch, different segments of a worm, different limbs of a tetrapod). See homology. Sertoli cells (Enrico Sertoli, Italian histologist, 1842–1910). Epithelial cells of the seminiferous tubules that play a role in the maturation of the sperm. Sesamoid bone [se˘s9Q-moid] (Gr., sesamon 5 sesame seed 1 eidos 5 form). A bone that develops in the tendon of a muscle near its insertion and facilitates the movement of a muscle across a joint, acts as a lever arm, or alters its direction of pull; the patella and pisiform are examples. Sessile [se˘s9Ql] (L., sessilus 5 fit for sitting). Describes an animal that lives attached to its substratum. Sex cords. Embronic cords of epithelium and primordial germ cells that give rise to the seminiferous tubules or ovarian follicles. Sexual homology. Parts in different sexes of the same species that develop from the same type of primordium. Shear. A stress that results from two parallel but not directly opposite forces that are moving toward each other. Sinus [sı¯9nu˘s] (L., 5 a cavity). A cavity or space within an organ. Sinusoids [sı¯9nQ-soidz] (Gr., eidos 5 form). Capillary-sized blood spaces in the liver or other organs that are not completely lined by endothelial cells. Sinus venosus [ve¯-no¯9sQs]. The most caudal chamber of the heart of anamniotes and some reptiles; receives the systemic veins. Sister group. The closest monophyletic group outside the ingroup. See ingroup, outgroup, monophyletic group. Skin. See integument. Skull [sku˘l] (Old English, skulle 5 bowl). The group of bones and cartilages that encase the brain and major sense organs and form the jaws; the lower jaw sometimes is not considered to be a part of the skull. Soaring. A type of flight in which the wings are held stationary and the animal remains aloft by utilizing upward air currents (static soaring) or differential air speeds at different elevations (dynamic soaring). Soft palate. A fleshy palate in mammals that separates the nasal and oral pharynx; part of the secondary palate. Somatic [so¯-ma˘t9ı˘k] (Gr., somatikos 5 bodily). Refers to structures that develop in the body wall or appendages as opposed to those in the gut tube, such as the somatic muscles, somatic skeleton. Somite [so¯9mı¯t]. One of the series of dorsal segments, or divisions of the paraxial mesoderm, in the trunk and caudal part of the head in a developing embryo; also called an epimere. Somitomere [so¯9mQ-to¯-mîr] (Gr., meros 5 part). One of the partial divisions of the paraxial mesoderm in the rostral part of the head of a developing embryo. Specialization. Presumed adaptations to a particular habitat and mode of life. Speciation. The process leading to the origin of new species through time. See anagenesis, cladogenesis, reticulate speciation. Species [spe¯9she¯z] (L., 5 particular kind). Several different definitions of the term “species” exist, some of which conflict. In general, most of these definitions specify reproductive coherence due to genetic and behavioral compatibility of the sexes (in the case of sexually reproducing organisms), uniqueness of evolutionary role (due to genetic isolation from other species), an origin (time of speciation), and an end (extinction or cladogenesis, either past or predicted for the future). Some systematists believe the species are neither more nor less real than higher taxa and that they should be defined as the smallest discernible monophyletic group. See cladogenesis, monophyletic group, speciation. Sperm (Gr., sperma 5 seed). The mature male gametes, also called spermatozoa. Spermatogenesis [spûr-ma˘t9o¯-je˘n9ı˘-sı˘s] (Gr., genesis 5 birth, descent). The formation and maturation of the sperm. Spermatophore [spûr-ma˘t9o¯-fôr] (Gr., phoros 5 bearing). A clump of sperm encapsulated in mucoid material; deposited by some male salamanders. Sphincter [sfı˘ngk9tQr] (Gr., sphinkter 5 band, lace). A circular muscle that closes the opening of an organ or surrounds another structure, e.g., the pyloric sphincter, sphincter colli muscle. Spinal column [spı¯9nQl] (L., spina 5 thorn, backbone). The vertebral column. Spinal cord. The central nervous system caudal to the brain. Spiracle [spîr9Q-kQl] (L., spiraculum 5 air hole). The reduced first gill pouch of some fishes through which water may enter the pharynx; also, the opening from the gill chamber of frog tadpoles. Spiral valve (L., spira 5 coil). A helical coil in the intestine of early fishes; also a fold within the conus arteriosus and ventral aorta of lungfishes and some amphibians and reptiles that helps separate pulmonary and systemic bloodstreams. Splanchnic [spla˘ngk9nı˘k] (Gr., splanchnon 5 gut, viscus). Descriptive of structures that supply the gut, such as the splanchnic nerves. Splanchnocranium [spla˘ngk9no¯-kra¯9ne¯-Qm] (Gr., kranion 5 skull). The portion of the cranial skeleton composed of the visceral arches. Spleen [sple¯n] (Gr., splen 5 spleen). A vascular organ near the stomach in which blood cells may be produced, stored, and eliminated. Squamates [skwa¯9ma¯tz] (L., squama 5 scale). The reptilian division that includes the lizards, amphisbaenians, and snakes. Stall. Sudden loss of lift by the wings. Stapes [sta¯9pe¯z] (L., 5 stirrup). The most medial of the three auditory ossicles of mammals; homologous to the hyomandibula of fishes and columella of nonmammalian tetrapods. Step. The distance a tetrapod moves forward by the action of one leg and foot. Sternum [stûr9nQm] (Gr., sternon 5 chest). The breastbone of tetrapods. Stomach [stûm9Qk] (Gr., stomacos 5 stomach). The part of the digestive tract where food is stored temporarily and where digestion usually is initiated. Stomodaeum [sto¯9mQ-de¯9Qm] (Gr., stoma 5 mouth 1 hodaion 5 on the way). An ectodermal invagination at the front of the embryo that forms the oral cavity. Strain. The deformation in a material that results from stress. Stratum [stra˘t9Qm] (L., 5 layer). A layer of tissue, such as the stratum corneum on the skin surface. Stress. The force per unit area that is applied to a material. Striatum [strı¯-a¯9tu˘m] (L., striatus 5 striped). A group of nuclei in the base of the cerebrum through which white fibers pass; part of the subpallium. Stride. The distance a tetrapod moves forward from the placement of one foot on the ground to the next placement of the same foot; equivalent to four steps in a quadruped. Subpallium [su¯b-pa˘l9e¯-Qm] (L., sub 5 under 1 pallium 5 cloak). Gray matter of the cerebrum lying ventral to the pallium; includes the striatum and septum. Sulcus [su˘l9kQs] (L., 5 groove). A groove on the surface of an organ, such as the sulci on the cerebrum of a mammal. Sulcus limitans [lı˘m9ı˘-tQns]. A groove in the central canal of the nervous system that delineates the dorsal sensory areas of gray matter from the ventral motor ones. Summation [su˘m-a¯9shQn]. The addition of successive events that come in rapid sequence to produce a response, or a response of greater magnitude. Suprarenal gland. See adrenal gland. Suprasegmental control. A level of integration by parts of the brain that is superimposed on the basic pattern of activity of lower centers. Surfactant [sûr-fa˘k9tQnt] (L., superficius 5 superficial 1 actio, pp. actus 5 to do). A surface tension depressant found on the lining of the lungs. Suture [su¯9chQr] (L., 5 seam). An immovable joint (and type of synarthrosis) in which the bones are separated by a septum of connective tissue, such as those between dermal bones of the skull. Sweat glands. Mammalian cutaneous glands that secrete a watery solution (eccrine sweat glands) or odoriferous materials (apocrine sweat glands). Swim bladder. A sac of gas, located dorsally in the body cavity of most actinopterygians, that has a hydrostatic function. Sympathetic nervous system [sı˘m9pQ-the˘t9ı˘k] (Gr., sym 5 with 1 pathos 5 feeling). The part of the autonomic nervous system that, in mammals, leaves the central nervous system from parts of the spinal cord; its activity helps an animal adjust to stress by promoting physiological processes that increase the energy available to tissues. Symphysis [sı˘m9fı˘-sı˘s] (Gr., physis 5 growth). A joint (and type of synarthrosis) between bones that permits limited movement by the deformation of the fibrocartilage between them, as the pelvic symphysis; usually occurs in the midline of the body. Synapomorphy. A shared derived character or character state at its most taxonomically inclusive level. A character diagnosing a monophyletic group (e.g., the presence of jaws for Gnathostomata). See apomorphy, character. Equivalent to a phylogenetic homology. See homology. Synapse [sı˘n9a˘ps] (Gr., synapsis 5 union). The junction at which an impulse passes from one neuron to another. Synapsid [sı˘-na˘p9sı˘d] (Gr., apsid 5 loop or bar). A skull with a single laterally placed temporal fenestra, or a group of vertebrates with such a skull, such as the Synapsida. Synapsida. A group containing Mammalia plus a number of closely related extinct lineages or taxa. Synarthrosis [sı˘n9är-thro¯9sı˘s] (Gr., arthron 5 joint). A joint with fibrous or cartilaginous material between the adjacent elements; growth can occur here but no or only limited movement. Synchondrosis [sı˘n9ko˘n-dro¯9sı˘s] (Gr., chondros 5 cartilage). A joint (or type of synarthrosis) in which cartilage separates two bony elements, found between bones that ossify in the chondrocranium; growth can occur but only limited movement. Synergy [sı˘n9Qr-je¯] (Gr., ergon 5 work). Pertaining to different muscles or other organs that interact to produce a common effect. Synovial fluid [sı˘-no¯9ve¯-Ql] (L., synovia 5 joint oil). A clear fluid that serves as a lubricant in movable joints. Synovial joint. See diarthrosis. Synsacrum [sı˘n-sa¯9krQm] (L., sacrum 5 sacred). The group of fused vertebrae and their ribs in birds that articulates with the pelvis. Syrinx [sîr9ı˘ngks] (Gr., 5 panpipe). The voice box of birds, located at the distal end of the trachea. Systemic circulation [sı˘-ste˘m9ı˘k] (Gr., systema 5 a whole composed of several parts). The circulation through the body as a whole, exclusive of the circulation through the respiratory organs (branchial or pulmonary circulation) or heart (coronary circulation). Systole [sı˘s9tQ-le¯] (Gr., 5 a drawing together). The period during which the ventricle of the heart contracts and expels blood. T Tapetum lucidum [tQ-pe¯9tQm lu¯9sı˘d-Qm] (L., tapete 5 carpet 1 lucidus 5 clear, shining). A layer within or behind the retina of some vertebrates that reflects light back onto the photoreceptive cells. Tarsal [tär9sQl] (Gr., tarsos 5 sole of the foot). One of the bones in the ankle. Taxon [ta˘k9so˘n], pl. taxa (Gr., taxis 5 arrangement). A group of organisms given a proper name for the sake of classification. A taxon can be (and should be, in the authors’ opinion) monophyletic (e.g., the genus Clupea, which includes the true herrings, or the family Acipenseridae, which includes the sturgeons). Occasionally taxon is also used to refer to nonmonophyletic groups such as the traditional “Reptilia” (a group that excludes some of its putative descendants, i.e., birds). Taxa are defined through characters that are discovered through empirical investigation. See character, Linnean classification system, monophyletic group. Taxonomic group. See taxon. (Taxonomic group 5 a taxon.) Tectum [te˘k9tQm] (L., 5 roof). A roof, specifically the roof of the mesencephalon. Tegmentum [te˘g-me˘n9tQm] (L., tegmen 5 covering). The floor of the mesencephalon or metencephalon. Telachoroidea [te¯9lQ-kQ-roi9de¯-Q] (L., tela 5 web 1 Gr., chorion 5 membrane enclosing the fetus 1 eidos 5 form). A thin membrane composed of the ependymal epithelium and the vascular meninx that forms the roof or wall of some ventricles. Telencephalon [te˘l9e˘n-se˘f9Q-lo˘n] (Gr., telos 5 end 1 enkephalos 5 brain). The rostral part of the forebrain from which the olfactory bulbs and cerebral hemispheres develop. Teleosts [te¯9le¯-ôsts] (Gr., osteon 5 bone). An extremely speciose group of vertebrates including all living neopterygian fishes other than gars and bowfins. Telodendria [têl9o¯-de˘n9dre¯-Q] (Gr., dendria 5 trees). The terminal branches of an axon. See terminal arborization. Tendon [te˘n9dQn] (L., tendo 5 to stretch). A cord of dense connective tissue that extends between a muscle and its attachment. Tendon organ. A proprioceptor in tendons that is stimulated by tension developed by muscle contraction. Tension. The stress that results from two parallel forces pulling directly away from each other. Tentorium [te˘n-tôr9e¯-Qm] (L., 5 tent). The septum of dura mater, ossified in some species, that extends between the cerebrum and cerebellum. Terminal arborization. The terminal branching of a neuron. Terminal nerve. A small nerve present beside the olfactory nerve in most vertebrates; its function is unclear, but it may have a role in detecting pheromones and regulating reproductive functions. Testis [te˘s9tı˘s] (L., 5 witness, originally an adult male, testis). The male reproductive organ, which produces sperm and male sex hormones. Testosterone [te˘s-to˘s9tQ-ro¯n]. The male sex hormone produced by the testis; promotes the development of male secondary sex characteristics and of sperm. Tetrapods [te˘t9rQ-po˘dz] (Gr., tetra 5 four 1 pous, podos 5 foot). A common name for terrestrial vertebrates; they have four feet unless some have been secondarily lost or converted to other uses. Thalamus [tha˘l9Q-mQs] (Gr., thalamos 5 chamber, bedroom). The lateral walls of the diencephalon; an important center between the cerebrum and other parts of the brain. Thecodont teeth [the¯9ko¯-do˘nt] (Gr., theke 5 case 1 odous, odont- 5 tooth). Teeth that are set in sockets. Therapsid [thQ-ra˘p9sı˘d] (Gr., therion 5 wild beast 1 apsis 5 arch). A group of synapsids very closely related to mammals. Therians [thîr9e¯-Qnz]. The group of mammals that includes the marsupials and eutherians. Thoracic duct [thQ-ra˘s9ı˘k] (Gr., thorax 5 chest). The large lymphatic duct of mammals that passes through the thorax and enters the large veins near the heart. Thorax [thôr9a˘ks]. The region of the mammalian body encased by the ribs. Thymus [thı¯9mQs] (Gr., thymos 5 thyme, thymus; so called because it resembles a bunch of thyme). The lymphoid organ that develops from certain pharyngeal pouches, necessary as the site where certain T lymphocytes mature. Thyroid gland [thı¯9roid] (Gr., thyroides 5 resembling an oblong shield). An endocrine gland that develops from the floor of the pharynx and in humans is located adjacent to the thyroid cartilage of the larynx; its hormones increase the rate of metabolism. Thyroid-stimulating hormone. A hormone produced by the adenohypophysis that promotes the secretion of the thyroid gland. Thyroxine [thı¯-ro˘k9se¯n] (Gr., oxo- 5 oxygen). One of the hormones released by the thyroid gland. Tibia [tı˘b9e¯-Q] (L., 5 the large shinbone). The bone on the medial side of the lower leg, in line with the first digit. Tissue [tı˘sh9u¯] (Old French, tissu 5 woven). An aggregation of cells that together perform a similar function. Tongue [tu˘ng] (Old English, tunge). A muscular mobile organ on the floor of the oral cavity of tetrapods that often helps gather food and manipulates it within the mouth. Tonsil [to˘n9sQl] (L., tonsilla 5 tonsil). One of the lymphoid organs that develops in the wall of the pharynx near the level of the second pharyngeal pouch. Torque. A turning force equal to the product of the force and the perpendicular distance between the line of action of the force and the fulcrum about which it acts; also called a moment. Trabeculae [trQ-be˘k9yu¯-le¯] (L., 5 little beams). Small, rod-like skeletal structures, such as the trabeculae within bones. Trachea [tra¯9ke¯-Q] (L., tracheia arteria 5 rough artery, windpipe). The respiratory tube between the larynx and the bronchi. Tract [tra˘kt] (L., tractus 5 a drawing out). A group of axons of similar function traveling together in the central nervous system. Transverse septum. The partition of epithelium that separates the pericardial from the pleuroperitoneal cavity. Trigeminal nerve [trı¯-je˘m9Q-nQl] (L., trigeminus 5 threefold). The fifth cranial nerve, which has three branches in mammals; it innervates the muscles of the mandibular arch and returns sensory fibers from cutaneous receptors over most of the head. Triiodothyronine [trı¯-ı¯9o¯-do¯-thı¯9rQ-ne¯n] (Gr., tri 5 three 1 iodo 5 violet-like or iodine 1 thyroides 5 resembling an oblong shield). A hormone produced by the thyroid gland. Trochanter [tro¯-ka˘n9tQr] (Gr., 5 a runner). One of the processes on the proximal end of the femur to which thigh muscles attach. Trochlear nerve [tro˘k9le¯-Qr] (L., trochlea 5 pulley). The fourth cranial nerve, which innervates the superior oblique muscle; the mammalian muscle passes through a connective tissue pulley before inserting on the eyeball. Trophoblast [tro¯9fo¯-bla˘st] (Gr., trophe 5 nourishment 1 blastos 5 bud). The outer layer of the mammalian blastocyst; initiates placenta formation; homologous to the chorionic ectoderm. Tunic [tu¯9nı˘k] (L., tunica 5 coating). Describes a layer of an organ, such as the layers of the eyeball. Tunicates [tu¯9nı˘-kı˘ts]. The group of chordates that includes the sea squirts and their allies; also called urochordates. Turbinate bones [tûr9bQ-na¯t] (L., turbinatus 5 top-shaped, whirlwind). Scroll-shaped bones in the nasal cavities of mammals that increase the surface area of the cavities; also called conchae. Turbulent flow. A disrupted flow of fluid along the surface of a swimming or flying vertebrate. Tympanic cavity (L., tympanum 5 drum). The middle ear cavity, which lies between the tympanic membrane and the otic capsule containing the inner ear. Tympanic membrane. The eardrum. U Ulna [u˘l9nQ] (L., 5 elbow). The bone of the antebrachium of tetrapods that extends behind the elbow, lying on the side adjacent to the fifth finger when the hand is supine. Ultimobranchial bodies [u˘l9tQ-mo¯-bra˘ng9ke¯-Ql] (L., ultimus 5 farthest 1 Gr. branchia 5 gills). Derivatives of the caudal surface of the last branchial pouch; in fishes, they contain the C cells, the hormone of which, calcitonin, helps regulate mineral metabolism. Ungulates [u˘ng9gyQ-lı˘ts] (L., ungula 5 hoof). A collective term for the hoofed mammals: artiodactyls and perissodactyls. Unguligrade [u˘ng9gyQ-lı˘-gra¯d] (L., gradus 5 step). Walking on the toe tips. Urea [y9-re¯9Q] (Gr., ouron 5 urine). A breakdown product of nitrogen metabolism; occurs in elasmobranchs, some amphibians, and mammals. Ureter [y9-re¯9tQr] (Gr., oureter 5 ureter, from ouron 5 urine). The duct of amniotes that carries urine from a metanephric kidney to the urinary bladder. Urethra [y9-re¯9thrQ] (Gr., ourethra 5 urethra). The duct in amniotes that carries urine from the urinary bladder to the cloaca or outside; part of it also carries sperm in males. Uric acid [y9r9ı˘k] (Gr., ouron 5 urine). A breakdown product of nitrogen metabolism; occurs chiefly in reptiles and birds, requires that little water be removed from the body. Urinary bladder [y9r9Q-ne˘r-e¯]. A saccular organ in which urine accumulates before discharge from the body. Urodeles [y9r9o¯-de¯lz] (Gr., oura 5 tail 1 delos 5 visible). The amphibian subgroup that includes the salamanders; also called Caudata. Urogenital [y9r9o¯-je˘n9ı˘-tl] (Gr., ouron 5 urine 1 L., genitalis 5 genital). Pertains to structures that are common to the urinary and genital systems, such as certain urogenital ducts. Urophysis [y9r9o¯-fı¯9sı˘s] (Gr., oura 5 tail 1 physis 5 growth). A neurosecretory organ on the caudal end of the spinal cord in elasmobranchs and teleosts. Uropygeal gland [y9r9o¯-pı¯9je¯-Ql] (Gr., pyge 5 rump). An oil-secreting gland of birds, located dorsal to the tail base. Urostyle [y9r9o¯-stı¯l] (Gr., stylos 5 pillar). An elongated bone of anurans that represents fused caudal vertebrae. Uterine tube [yu¯9tQr-ı˘n] (L., uterus 5 womb). The portion of the mammalian oviduct that carries eggs from the coelom to the uterus; also called the fallopian tube; site of fertilization. Uterus [yu¯9tQr-Qs]. The portion of an oviduct in which embryos develop in live-bearing species. Utriculus [yu¯-trı˘k9yQ-lQs] (L., 5 small sac). The upper chamber of the membranous labyrinth to which the semicircular ducts attach. V Vagina [vQ-jı¯9nQ] (L., 5 sheath). The passage in female therians that leads from the uterus to the vaginal vestibule. Vaginal vestibule [ve˘s9tQ-by7l] (L., vestibulum 5 antechamber). The passage or space in female therians that receives the vagina and urethra; also called the urogenital sinus. Vagus nerve [va¯9gQs] (L., 5 wandering). The tenth cranial nerve; carries motor fibers to the muscles of the last four visceral arches, autonomic fibers to the heart and viscera, returns sensory fibers from these areas, and supplies the lateral line canal in fishes and larval amphibians. Vas deferens [va˘s]. See deferent duct. Vasa efferentia [va¯9sQ]. See efferent ductules. Vascular tunic [va˘s9kyQ-lQr] (L., vasculum 5 small vessel). The middle layer of the eyeball; it forms the choroid, ciliary body, and iris. Vasopressin. See antidiuretic hormone. Vector [ve˘k9tQr] (L., vector 5 bearer). A quantity, such as a force, that has both a magnitude and a direction. Vein [va¯n] (L., vena 5 vein). A vessel that conveys blood toward the heart; most veins contain blood low in oxygen content, but pulmonary veins from the lungs are rich in oxygen. Velocity [vQ-lo˘s9ı˘-te¯]. Distance traveled divided by the time unit. Vena cava [ve¯9nQ ca¯9vQ] (L., 5 hollow vein). One of the major veins of lungfishes, amphibians, and amniotes; leads directly to the heart. Ventral aorta [a¯-ôr9tQ]. An artery that leads from the heart to the aortic arches and their derivatives; contributes to the arch of the aorta and base of the pulmonary artery in mammals. Ventricle [ve˘n9trı˘-kQl] (L., ventriculus 5 small belly). The chamber of the heart that greatly increases blood pressure and sends blood to the arteries; also a chamber within the brain. Vermis [vûr9mı˘s] (L., 5 worm). The “segmented” medial portion of the amniote cerebellum. Vertebra [vûr9tQ-brQ] (L., 5 joint, vertebra). One of the skeletal units that make up the spinal column. Vertebral arch. The arch of a vertebra that surrounds the spinal cord; also called a neural arch. Vertebral body. The main supporting component of a vertebra, lying ventral to the vertebral arch; also called the centrum. Vertebrates [vûr9tQ-bra¯ts]. The subgroup of craniates that contains species with at least an incipient vertebral column; excluding hagfishes, all craniates are vertebrates. Vesicular gland [ve˘-sı˘k9Q-lQr] (L., vesicus 5 small bladder). One of the accessory sex glands of males that contributes to the seminal fluid. Vestibular apparatus [ve˘-stı˘b9yQ-lQr] (L., vestibulum 5 entrance). The portion of the inner ear that detects changes in position and acceleration. Vestibulocochlear nerve [ve˘s-tı˘b9yQ-lo¯-ko˘k9le¯-Qr] (L., cochlea 5 snail shell). The eighth cranial nerve, which returns fibers from the parts of the inner ear related to equilibrium and sound detection; often called the statoacoustic nerve in anamniotes. Vestige [ve˘s9tı˘j] (L., vestigium 5 trace). A remnant in one organism of a structure that is well developed in another organism and has no function or a different function from that of its well-developed homologue. Vestigial. See vestige. Villi [vı˘l9ı¯] (L., 5 shaggy hairs). Multicellular but minute, often finger-shaped projections of an organ that increase its surface area, such as the intestinal villi. Viscera [vı˘s9Qr-Q] (L., 5 internal organs). A collective term for the internal organs. Visceral arches. The skeletal arches that develop in the wall of the pharynx; include the mandibular, hyoid, and brancial arches. Vitelline [vı˘-te˘l9ı˘n] (L., vitellus 5 yolk). Pertains to structures associated with the embryonic yolk sac, such as the vitelline arteries and veins. Vitreous body [vı˘9tre¯-Qs] (L., vitreus 5 glassy). The clear, viscous material in the eyeball between the lens and retina. Viviparity [vı˘v9Q-pe˘r9ı˘-te¯] (L., vivus 5 living 1 pario 5 to bring forth). A pattern of reproduction in which the embryos are born as miniature adults. The term is often limited to placental viviparity, in which the embryos are completely dependent on materials transferred from the mother. Vocal cords [vo¯9kQl] (L., vocalis 5 pertaining to the voice). Folds of mucous membrane within the larynx of many tetrapods the vibrations of which produce sound. Vomeronasal organ [vo¯9mQr-o¯-na¯9zQl]. An accessory olfactory organ located between the palate and nasal cavities of most tetrapods, important in feeding and sexual behavior. See also Jacobson’s organ. Vulva [vu˘l9vQ] (L., 5 covering). The external genitalia of a female. W Weberian ossicles [o˘s9ı˘-kQlz] (E. H. Weber, German anatomist, 1795–1878 1 L., ossiculum 5 small bone). A set of small bones that transmit sound waves from the swim bladder to the inner ear in some teleosts. Weight. The mass of a structure times the acceleration of gravity. White matter. Tissue in the central nervous system that consists primarily of myelinated axons. Wing loading. The weight of a bird divided by the area of its wings. Wolffian duct. (K. F. Wolff, 18th-century German embryologist). A term often applied to the embryonic archinephric duct. Work. The product of a force and the distance through which it acts. Y Yaw. The tendency for the head of swimming or flying vertebrates to move from left to right about its longitudinal axis. Yolk sac [yo¯k] (Anglo-Saxon, geula 5 yellow). The yolk-containing sac attached to the ventral surface of embryos that develops from macrolecithal eggs. Z Zygapophysis [zı¯9gQ-po˘f9ı˘-sı˘s] (Gr., zygon 5 yoke 1 apo 5 away from 1 physis 5 growth). A process of a vertebral arch that articulates with a comparable process on an adjacent arch; also called articular process. Zygomatic arch [zı¯9go¯-ma˘t9ı˘k] (Gr., zygoma 5 bar, yoke). The arch of bone in a mammalian skull that lies beneath the orbit and connects the facial and cranial regions of the skull. Zygote [zı¯9go¯t] (Gr., zygotes 5 yoked together). The cell formed by the union of a sperm and an egg.