Histories dealing with the origin of the concept of race include Theodore Allen, The Invention of the White Race (1994); Ivan Hannaford, Race: The History of an Idea in the West (1996); and Audrey Smedley, Race in North America: Origin and Evolution of a Worldview, 3rd ed. (2007).
“Race” and science
The history of race in science is discussed in Thomas F. Gossett, Race: The History of an Idea in America (1965); Elazar Barkan, The Retreat of Scientific Racism (1992); Nancy Stepan, The Idea of Race in Science: Great Britain 1800–1960 (1992).
Modern scientific views of human diversity are the subjects of Richard Lewontin, Human Diversity (1995); Jonathan Marks, Human Biodiversity: Genes, Race, and History (1995); Luigi Luca Cavalli-Sforza and F. Cavalli-Sforza, The Great Human Diasporas: The History of Diversity and Evolution (1995); and Christopher Stringer and Robin McKie, African Exodus: The Origins of Modern Humanity (1996).
The persistence of “race”
Race also continues to be the focus of discourse on specific topics. Among these are IQ, as in Steven Jay Gould, The Mismeasure of Man (1981); Mark Snyderman and Stanley Rothman, The IQ Controversy: The Media and Public Policy (1988); and Richard J. Herrnstein and Charles Murray, The Bell Curve: Intelligence and Class Structure in American Life (1994); and sports, as in John Hoberman, Darwin’s Athletes: How Sport Has Damaged Black America and Preserved the Myth of Race (1997); and Jon Entine, Taboo: Why Black Athletes Dominate Sports and Why We Are Afraid to Talk About It (2000).
“Race” in the New World
Detailed descriptions of 17th- and 18th-century colonial history, including analyses of the English attitudes toward the Irish and the persistence of such attitudes in the New World and descriptions of the events leading to the enslavement of Africans, are discussed in Edmund Morgan, American Slavery, American Freedom (1975); Theodore Allen, The Invention of the White Race, vol. 2 (1997); George Frederickson, White Supremacy (1981); Philip D. Morgan, Slave Counterpoint (1998); Winthrop D. Jordan, White over Black (1968); and Gary B. Nash, Red, White and Black: The Peoples of Early America, 3rd ed. (1992).
General works on race in Latin America include Norman E. Whitten and Arlene Torres, Blackness in Latin American and the Caribbean: Social Dynamics and Cultural Transformations, 2 vol. (1998); and Peter Wade, Race and Ethnicity in Latin America (1997).
General overviews include Magnus Mörner, Race Mixture in the History of Latin America (1967); Marvin Harris, Patterns of Race in the Americas, 2nd ed. (1974); and George Reid Andrews, Afro-America, 1800–2000 (2004).
Nancy P. Appelbaum, Anne S. MacPherson, and Karin A. Rosemblatt (eds.), Race and Nation in Modern Latin America (2003), has very good country studies and a good overview. Richard Graham (ed.), The Idea of Race in Latin America, 1870–1940 (1990), gives several country studies and contains a useful introductory chapter. Anthony Marx, Making Race and Nation: A Comparison of Brazil, the United States, and South Africa (1998), is a significant comparative analysis.
Nancy Leys Stepan, “The Hour of Eugenics”: Race, Gender, and Nation in Latin America (1991), examines late 19th- and early 20th-century ideologies of race and eugenics. Leslie Rout, Jr., The African Experience in Latin America: 1502 to the Present Day (1976); and Ann Pescatello, The African in Latin America (1975), focus on slavery and post-abolition black-white race relations. Florencia E. Mallon, “Indian Communities, Political Cultures and the State in Latin America, 1780–1990,” Journal of Latin American Studies, 24:35–53 (1992), focuses on indigenous peoples. Richard Price (ed.), Maroon Societies: Rebel Slave Communities in the Americas, 2nd ed. (1979), presents many case studies of black resistance.
Charles R. Hale (ed.), “Mestizaje,” special issue of Journal of Latin American Anthropology 2(1) (1996), contains good case studies, including some from the late 19th century. Norman E. Whitten, Black Frontiersmen: Afro-Hispanic Culture of Ecuador and Colombia (1974), is a classic ethnographic text. Marisol de la Cadena, Indigenous Mestizos: The Politics of Race and Culture in Cuzco, Peru, 1919–1991 (2000), reviews the unusual way Peru dealt with ideas of mixture. Peter Wade, Blackness and Race Mixture: The Dynamics of Racial Identity in Colombia (1993), is an ethnographic study and includes an epilogue on Colombia’s legal changes that recognize “black communities.” France Winddance Twine, Racism in a Racial Democracy: The Maintenance of White Supremacy in Brazil (1998), is an ethnography of a small town in Brazil. Greg Grandin, The Blood of Guatemala: A History of Race and Nation (2000), covers the 19th and 20th centuries. Helen Safa (ed.), “Race and National Identity in the Americas,” special issue of Latin American Perspectives, 25(3) (1998), combines historical and contemporary material and includes articles on Latin America in general as well as material on Cuba, Colombia, Brazil, and the Dominican Republic. Shane Greene (ed.), “Entre ‘lo Indio’ y ‘lo Negro’: Interrogating the Effects of Latin America’s New Afro-Indigenous Multiculturalisms,” special issue of Journal of Latin American and Caribbean Anthropology, 12(2) (2007), considers indigenous and black social movements across the region. Robin E. Sheriff, Dreaming Equality: Color, Race, and Racism in Urban Brazil (2001), is an ethnographic study of Rio de Janeiro.
“Race” in Asia
Discussions of race as it is perceived in Asia include Peter Robb (ed.), The Concept of Race in South Asia (1997); Frank Dikötter, The Discourse of Race in Modern China (1993); Charles F. Keyes, “‘The Peoples of Asia’: Science and Politics in Ethnic Classification of Races in Thailand, China, and Vietnam,” Journal of Asian Studies, 61(4):1163–1203 (November 2002); and Charles Hirschman, “The Meaning and Measurement of Ethnicity in Malaysia: An Analysis of Census Classifications,” Journal of Asian Studies 46(3):555–582 (August 1987).
Sources on South Asia, particularly the caste system of India, are J.H. Hutton, Caste in India: Its Nature, Function, and Origins (1963); Adrian Mayer, Caste and Kinship in Central India (1970); and Jonathan Perry, Caste and Kinship in Kangra (1979).