Ngokusekelwe kwisicatshulwa esilandelayo chaza isixhobo sokuqala se-solid-state kunye nokusetyenziswa kwaso.
Context:Kudala ngaphambi kokuba abantu babe nolwazi ngombane, babesazi ukuba iintlanzi ezinombane zinokubathuthumbisa. Imibhalo yamandulo yaseYiputa eyabhalwa malunga nowama-2750 BCE ibhekisela kwezi ntlanzi njenge "Thunder of the Nile", kwaye yazichaza "njengabakhuseli" bezinye iintlanzi. Iintlanzi ezisebenza ngombane zaphinda zachazwa emva kweenkulungwane ngamaGrike amandulo, amaRoma nama-Arabhu abaphengululi bemvelo kunye noogqirha. Ababhali bamandulo abaliqela, abanjengoPliny Omdala noScribonius Largus, bangqina umphumo wokudumba wombane owenziwa yicatfish yombane nemitha yombane, yaye babesazi ukuba loo mbane ungahamba kunye nezinto eziqhuba umbane. Izigulana ezinesifo esifana nesifo se-gout okanye intloko ebuhlungu zazicetyiswa ukuba zichukumise intlanzi enombane ngethemba lokuba loo mbane unamandla uza kuzinyanga. Iinkcubeko zamandulo ezijikeleze iMeditera zazisazi ukuba izinto ezithile, ezinjengeentonga ze-amber, zazinokucocwa ngoboya bekati ukuze zitsale izinto ezilula ezinjengeentsiba. UThales waseMiletus wenza uthotho lokujonga umbane ongaguqukiyo malunga no-600 BCE, apho wayekholelwa ukuba ukungqubana kwenza i-amber ibe yimagnethi, ngokuchasene neeminerals ezinje nge-magnetite, eyayingadingi kukhukuliseka. UThales wayengachananga xa wayekholelwa ukuba umtsalane ubangelwa yimagnethi, kodwa kamva inzululwazi yayiza kubonisa unxibelelwano phakathi kwemagnethi nombane. Ngokutsho kwengcamango ephikisanayo, amaParthians asenokuba ayenolwazi lwe-electroplating, ngokusekelwe ekufumaneni kwe-1936 ye-Baghdad Battery, efana ne-galvanic cell, nangona ingaqinisekanga ukuba le nto yayisebenza ngombane. Umbane wawuza kuba yinto nje yokufun' ukwazi abantu kangangamawaka eminyaka de kwangowe - 1600, xa isazinzulu esingumNgesi uWilliam Gilbert sabhala incwadi ethi De Magnete, apho wafundisisa ngenyameko umbane nemagnethi, eyahlula isiphumo selitye lelodestone kumbane ongatshintshiyo oveliswa kukutshizwa kweamber. Wadala igama lesiLatini elitsha elithi electricus ("le-amber" okanye "njenge-amber", elektron, igama lesiGrike elithetha "i-amber") ukubhekisa kwipropathi yokutsala izinto ezincinci emva kokuthanjiswa. Olu nxibelelwano lwavelisa amagama esiNgesi athi "electric" nelithi "electricity", awaqala ukuvela kwincwadi kaThomas Browne ethi Pseudodoxia Epidemica yowe-1646. Umsebenzi olandelayo wenziwa kwinkulungwane ye-17 nasekuqaleni kwe-18 nguOtto von Guericke, uRobert Boyle, uStephen Gray noC. F. du Fay. Kamva ngenkulungwane ye-18, uBenjamin Franklin wenza uphando olunzulu ngombane, ethengisa izinto zakhe ukuze axhase umsebenzi wakhe. NgoJuni 1752 kuthiwa wabopha isitshixo sesinyithi emazantsi entambo yomkhombe omanzi waza wayibhabha loo mkhombe esibhakabhakeni esasisongelwa sisaqhwithi. Ukutshangatshangiswa kwentsimbi esuka kwisitshixo ukuya ngasemva kwesandla sakhe kwabonisa ukuba imibane ngokwenene yayingumbane. Wachaza nokuziphatha okubonakala kuyimpikiswano kweglasi yaseLeyden njengesixhobo sokugcina isixa esikhulu sombane ngokombane oqukethe zombini iintlawulo ezintle nezingalunganga Ngowe-1775, uHugh Williamson wanikela ingxelo kwiRoyal Society ngothotho lwezilingo ezenziwa kukungqubana kweentlanzi ngombane; kwakuloo nyaka ugqirha nogqirha wamalungu omzimba uJohn Hunter wachaza indlela ezakhiwe ngayo izitho zombane zale ntlanzi. Ngowe - 1791, uLuigi Galvani wapapasha into awayifumanisayo nge - bioelectromagnetics, ebonisa ukuba umbane uyindlela iineurons ezidlulisela ngayo imiqondiso kwizihlunu. Ibhetri ka - Alessandro Volta yowe - 1800, eyayenziwe ngeengqimba zezinki nezobhedu, yanika izazinzulu umthombo wamandla ombane onokuthenjwa ngaphezu koomatshini bombane ababesetyenziswa ngaphambili. Ukuqondwa kwe-electromagnetism, umanyano lwezinto zombane kunye nemagnethi, kungenxa kaHans Christian Ørsted noAndré-Marie Ampère ngo-1819<unk>1820. UMichael Faraday wavelisa imoto yombane ngowe-1821, yaye uGeorg Ohm wenza uhlalutyo lwezibalo ngesekethe yombane ngowe-1827. Umbane kunye nemagnethi (kunye nokukhanya) zazinxulunyaniswa ngokuqinisekileyo nguJames Clerk Maxwell, ngakumbi kwi "On Physical Lines of Force" yakhe ngo 1861 no 1862.  Ngoxa ekuqaleni kwenkulungwane ye - 19 kwakukho inkqubela ekhawulezileyo kwisayensi yombane, ngasekupheleni kwenkulungwane ye - 19 kwakuza kubakho inkqubela enkulu kubunjineli bombane. Ngabantu abanjengoAlexander Graham Bell, Ottó Bláthy, Thomas Edison, Galileo Ferraris, Oliver Heaviside, Ányos Jedlik, William Thomson, 1st Baron Kelvin, Charles Algernon Parsons, Werner von Siemens, Joseph Swan, Reginald Fessenden, Nikola Tesla kunye noGeorge Westinghouse, umbane wajika ukusuka kwinzululwazi ukuba ube sisixhobo esibalulekileyo kubomi banamhlanje. Ngowe-1887, uHeinrich Hertz wafumanisa ukuba ii - electrode ezikhanyiswe kukukhanya kweultraviolet zivelisa imibane ngokulula. Ngowe-1905, uAlbert Einstein wapapasha iphepha elalicacisa idatha yovavanyo evela kwimpembelelo ye-photoelectric njengomphumo wamandla okukhanya athwalwa kwiipakethi ze-quantized ezizimeleyo, ezikhuthaza i-electron. Oku kwabangela ukuba kwenziwe inguqulelo enkulu. Ngowe-1921 uEinstein wawongwa ngeBhaso likaNobel lezeMvelo ngenxa "yokufumanisa kwakhe umthetho wempembelelo yombane". Ifotoelectric effect ikwasetyenziswa kwiifotocells ezinokufumaneka kwiiphaneli zelanga. Isixhobo sokuqala esiqinileyo sasiyi "cat's-whisker detector" eyasetyenziswa okokuqala ngeminyaka yoo-1900 kwii-receiver zerediyo. Ucingo olunjengentshebe lubekwa kancinci kunxibelelwano nekristale eqinileyo (njengekristale yegermanium) ukufumanisa umqondiso werediyo ngempembelelo yokudibana. Kwicandelo lezinto eziqinileyo, umbane ugcinwe kwizinto eziqinileyo kunye neekhompawundi ezenzelwe ngokukodwa ukuyiguqula nokuyandisa. Ukuhamba kwamandla kunokuqondwa ngeendlela ezimbini: njengama-electron anetyala elibi, kunye nokungabikho kwee-electron ezinetyala elifanelekileyo ezibizwa ngokuba yimingxunya. Ezi ntsholongwane nemingxunya ziqondwa ngokwemigqaliselo ye quantum physics. Izinto zokwakha zihlala ziyikristali ye-semiconductor. Izixhobo ze-elektroniki eziqinileyo zavela ngokwazo ngokuvela kwetekhnoloji ye-transistor. I-transistor yokuqala esebenzayo, i-germanium-based point-contact transistor, yaqanjwa nguJohn Bardeen noWalter Houser Brattain kwiiBell Labs ngo-1947, ilandelwa yi-bipolar junction transistor ngo-1948.
Isixhobo sokuqala esiqinileyo sasiyi "cat's-whisker detector" eyasetyenziswa okokuqala ngeminyaka yoo-1900 kwii-receiver zerediyo. Ucingo olunjengentshebe lubekwa kancinci kunxibelelwano nekristale eqinileyo (njengekristale yegermanium) ukufumanisa umqondiso werediyo ngempembelelo yokudibana.