Ngokusekelwe endimeni elandelayo, chaza umshini wokuqala wokusebenzisa i-solid-state kanye nokusetshenziswa kwawo.
Context:Esikhathini eside ngaphambi kokuba kube khona noma yiluphi ulwazi ngogesi, abantu babesazi ukuthi izinhlanzi zikagesi ziyabashaya. Imibhalo yasendulo yaseGibithe eyabhalwa ngo-2750 B.C.E. yabhekisela kulezi zinhlanzi ngokuthi "iThunderer of the Nile", futhi yazichaza ngokuthi "abavikeli" bazo zonke ezinye izinhlanzi. Izinhlanzi ezisebenza ngogesi zaphinde zabikwa eminyakeni eyizinkulungwane kamuva izazi zemvelo nodokotela bamaGreki, amaRoma nabama-Arabhu basendulo. Abalobi abaningana basendulo, abanjengoPliny Omdala noScribonius Largus, bafakazela umphumela wokudlikiza wethonya likagesi elilethwa i-catfish kagesi nemisebe kagesi, futhi babazi ukuthi amathonya anjalo angadlulela ezintweni ezihambisa ugesi. Iziguli ezinesifo esifana ne-gout noma ikhanda zaziyalelwa ukuba zithinte izinhlanzi zikagesi ngethemba lokuthi ukuzamazama okunamandla kwakuzoziphilisa. Amasiko asendulo azungeze iMedithera ayazi ukuthi izinto ezithile, ezinjengezinduku ze-amber, zazingathintwa ngoboya bekati ukuze zihehe izinto ezilula ezinjengezimpaphe. UThales waseMiletus wenza uchungechunge lokubheka ugesi ongaguquki cishe ngo-600 BCE, lapho akholelwa khona ukuthi ukungqubuzana kwenza i-amber ibe namandla kazibuthe, ngokungafani namaminerali afana ne-magnetite, ayidingi ukubhucungwa. UThales wayenephutha ngokukholelwa ukuthi lokhu kudonswa kwakungenxa yomphumela wamagnetic, kodwa kamuva isayensi yayiyofakazela ukuthi kunokuhlobana phakathi kukazibuthe nogesi. Ngokombono ophikisanayo, kungenzeka ukuthi amaParthi ayenolwazi nge-electroplating, ngokususelwa ekutholakaleni kuka-1936 kwe-Baghdad Battery, efana neseli le-galvanic, yize kungaqiniseki ukuthi le nto yayisebenza ngogesi yini. Ugesi wawuyohlala ungokuthile okungaphezu kokuthakazelisa abantu iminyaka eyizinkulungwane kwaze kwaba ngu - 1600, lapho usosayensi waseNgilandi uWilliam Gilbert ebhala incwadi ethi De Magnete, lapho afunda ngokucophelela khona ugesi namandla kazibuthe, ehlukanisa umphumela wetshe eliyi - lodestone nogesi ongaguquki okhiqizwa ukuhlikihla i - amber. Wasungula igama lesiLatini Elisha elithi electricus ("le-amber" noma "elifana ne-amber", elektron, igama lesiGreki elisho "i-amber") ukuze abhekisele esimweni sokuheha izinto ezincane ngemva kokuzihlikihla. Lokhu kuhlangana kwaveza amagama esiNgisi athi "electric" nelithi "electricity", aqala ukuvela encwadini kaThomas Browne ethi Pseudodoxia Epidemica ka-1646. Umsebenzi owengeziwe waqhutshwa ngekhulu le-17 nasekuqaleni kwekhulu le-18 ngu-Otto von Guericke, uRobert Boyle, uStephen Gray noC. F. du Fay. Kamuva ekhulwini le-18, uBenjamin Franklin wenza ucwaningo olunzulu ngogesi, wathengisa izinto zakhe ukuze asekele umsebenzi wakhe. Ngo-June 1752 kuthiwa wanamathisela ukhiye wensimbi ezansi kwentambo edayiwe eyomile futhi wayindiza edayeni esibhakabhakeni esasisongelwa isiphepho. Ukusakazeka kwezinhlansi eziqhamuka esikhwameni zize zifinyelele engxenyeni engemuva yesandla sakhe kwabonisa ukuthi ngempela umbani ungowamandla kagesi. Wachaza nokuziphatha okubonakala kuyindida komgqomo waseLeyden njengedivayisi yokugcina inani elikhulu likagesi ngokuya ngogesi oqukethe kokubili amacala amahle nalawo amabi Ngo - 1775, uHugh Williamson wabika uchungechunge lwezivivinyo eRoyal Society mayelana nokushaqeka okwenziwa umkhomo kagesi; ngawo lowo nyaka udokotela ohlinzayo nongudokotela wesayensi yokwakheka komzimba uJohn Hunter wachaza isakhiwo sezitho zikagesi zale nhlanzi. Ngo - 1791, uLuigi Galvani washicilela ukutholakala kwakhe kwe - bioelectromagnetics, ebonisa ukuthi ugesi uyindlela ama - neuron adlulisela ngayo izibonakaliso emisipheni. Ibhethri lika - Alessandro Volta, noma inqwaba ye - voltaic, yango - 1800, elenziwe ngezingqimba ze - zinc nethusi ezishintshanayo, lanikeza ososayensi umthombo onokwethenjelwa kakhudlwana wamandla kagesi kunemishini kagesi eyayisetshenziswa ngaphambili. Ukuqashelwa kwe-electromagnetism, ubunye bezimo zikagesi nezama-magnetic, kungenxa kaHans Christian Ørsted no-André-Marie Ampère ngo-1819<unk>1820. UMichael Faraday wasungula imoto kagesi ngo-1821, futhi uGeorg Ohm wahlaziya izibalo zesekethe kagesi ngo-1827. Ugesi namandla kazibuthe (nokukhanya) kwahlanganiswa ngokuqondile nguJames Clerk Maxwell, ikakhulukazi encwadini yakhe ethi "On Physical Lines of Force" ngo-1861 nango-1862.  Nakuba ekuqaleni kwekhulu le-19 leminyaka kwaba nentuthuko esheshayo kwezesayensi kagesi, ngasekupheleni kwekhulu le-19 leminyaka kwaba nentuthuko enkulu kakhulu kwezobunjiniyela kagesi. Ngabantu abanjengo-Alexander Graham Bell, u-Ottó Bláthy, uThomas Edison, uGalileo Ferraris, u-Oliver Heaviside, u-Ányos Jedlik, uWilliam Thomson, u-1st Baron Kelvin, uCharles Algernon Parsons, uWerner von Siemens, uJoseph Swan, uReginald Fessenden, uNikola Tesla noGeorge Westinghouse, ugesi waphenduka waba yithuluzi elibalulekile ekuphileni kwanamuhla. Ngo - 1887, uHeinrich Hertz wathola ukuthi ama - electrode akhanyiswa ukukhanya kwe - ultraviolet enza izibani zikagesi kalula. Ngo - 1905, u - Albert Einstein washicilela iphepha elachaza imininingwane yokuhlola evela kumphumela we - photoelectric njengomphumela wamandla okukhanya athwalwa emaphaketheni ahlukanisiwe, anika amandla ama - electron. Lokhu kutholakala kwaholela ekuguqulweni kwe-quantum. U-Einstein wanikezwa uMklomelo KaNobel Kwezesayensi ngo-1921 "ngokuthola kwakhe umthetho wokusebenza kwe-photoelectric". Umphumela we-photoelectric usetshenziswa futhi kuma-photocells afana nalawo atholakala kuma-solar panels. Idivayisi yokuqala eqinile kwakuyi-"cat's-whisker detector" eyasetshenziswa okokuqala ngawo-1900 kumamukeli omsakazo. Ucingo olufana nesilevu lubekwa kancane ngokuxhumana nekristalu eliqinile (njengekristalu le-germanium) ukuthola isignali yomsakazo ngomphumela wokuhlangana kokuxhumana. Engxenyeni eqinile, amandla kagesi agcinwe ezintweni eziqinile kanye nezinhlanganisela ezenzelwe ngokukhethekile ukuyishintsha nokuyikhulisa. Ukugeleza kwamanje kungaqondwa ngezindlela ezimbili: njengama-electron akhokhiswa kabi, futhi njengokuntuleka kwama-electron akhokhiswa kahle abizwa ngokuthi izimbobo. Lezi zinsimbi nezimbobo ziqondwa ngokwemibandela ye-quantum physics. Izinto zokwakha ngokuvamile ziyi-semiconductor ekristalline. Imishini ye - solid - state electronics yaqala ukuvelela ngokuvela kobuchwepheshe bama - transistor. I-transistor yokuqala esebenzayo, i-germanium-based point-contact transistor, yasungulwa nguJohn Bardeen noWalter Houser Brattain eBell Labs ngo-1947, yalandelwa yi-bipolar junction transistor ngo-1948.
Idivayisi yokuqala eqinile kwakuyi-"cat's-whisker detector" eyasetshenziswa okokuqala ngawo-1900 kumamukeli omsakazo. Ucingo olufana nesilevu lubekwa kancane ngokuxhumana nekristalu eliqinile (njengekristalu le-germanium) ukuthola isignali yomsakazo ngomphumela wokuhlangana kokuxhumana.